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Copyright, ii
Preface, v
Part I. The Measurement and Assessment Process, 1
1. Educational Testing and Assessment: Context, Issues, and Trends, 1
Educational Assessment: Barometer and Lever of Reform, 3
Five Decades of Test-Based Educational Reform, 4
Federal Support of Compensatory Education: Title I, 4
Minimum-Competency Testing, 5
A Nation at Risk, 5
Standards-Based Reform, 6
No Child Left Behind, 10
The Question of Impact, 11
Technological Advances in Testing and Assessment, 12
Public Concern About Testing and Assessment, 14
Nature and Quality of Tests, 15
Effects of Testing on Students, 16
Fairness of Tests to Minorities, 18
Gender Fairness, 20
Formative Assessments, 21
Summary, 21
Learning Exercises, 23
References, 23
Further Reading, 24
2. The Role of Measurement and Assessment in Teaching, 26
Instructional Decisions Requiring Assessment Data, 27
Assessment, Test, and Measurement, 28
General Principles of Assessment, 29
Assessment and the Instructional Process, 32
Identifying Instructional Goals, 32
Preassessing the Learners’ Needs, 32
Providing Relevant Instruction, 32
Assessing the Intended Learning Outcomes, 34
Using the Results, 34
Types of Assessment Procedures, 36
Maximum Performance Versus Typical Performance, 36
Fixed-Choice Tests and Complex-Performance Assessments, 37
Placement, Formative, Diagnostic, and Summative Assessment, 38
Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Measurement, 39
Summary of Assessment Categories, 42
Other Descriptive Terms, 42
Summary, 44
Learning Exercises, 45
References, 46
Further Reading, 46
3. Instructional Goals and Objectives: Foundation for Assessment, 47
Instructional Objectives as Learning Outcomes, 50
From Overly Specific Objectives to the Thinking Curriculum, 52
Types of Learning Outcomes to Consider, 54
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, 55
Other Sources for Lists of Objectives, 57
Criteria for Selecting Appropriate Objectives, 57
Make Allowance for Unanticipated Learning Outcomes, 58
Method of Stating Instructional Objectives, 60
How to Obtain a Clear Statement of Instructional Objectives, 61
Stating the General Instructional Objectives, 62
Stating the Specific Learning Outcomes, 63
Clarification of Verbs Used in Specific Learning Outcomes, 65
Summary of Steps for Stating Instructional Objectives, 65
Summary, 67
Learning Exercises, 68
References, 69
Further Reading, 69
4. Validity, 70
Nature of Validity, 72
Major Considerations in Assessment Validation, 73
Content Considerations, 75
Content Considerations in Assessment Development to Enhance Validity, 77
Content Considerations in Test Selection, 79
Content Considerations in Other Areas, 79
Construct Considerations, 80
Methods Used in Construct Validation, 84
Assessment–Criterion Relationships, 85
Predicting Future Performance, 87
Correlation, 87
Estimating Present Performance, 91
Expectancy Table, 92
The “Criterion” Problem, 94
Consideration of Consequences, 95
Factors Influencing Validity, 97
Factors in the Test or Assessment Itself, 97
Functioning of Tasks and Teaching Procedures, 99
Factors in Administration and Scoring, 99
Factors in Student Responses, 99
Nature of the Group and the Criterion, 100
Teaching and Evaluating Assessments, 100
Summary, 102
Learning Exercises, 104
References, 105
Further Reading, 105
5. Reliability and Other Desired Characteristics, 107
Nature of Reliability, 107
Determining Reliability by Correlation Methods, 109
Test–Retest Method, 110
Equivalent-Forms Method, 112
Split-Half Method, 112
Coefficient Alpha, 114
Interrater Consistency, 115
Comparing Methods, 118
Standard Error of Measurement, 119
Factors Influencing Reliability Measures, 124
Number of Assessment Tasks, 125
Spread of Scores, 126
Objectivity, 126
Methods of Estimating Reliability, 127
Reliability of Assessments Evaluated in Terms of a Fixed Performance Standard, 128
How High Should Reliability Be?, 131
Usability, 132
Ease of Administration, 133
Time Required for Administration, 133
Ease of Interpretation and Application, 133
Availability of Equivalent or Comparable Forms, 134
Cost of Testing, 134
Summary, 134
Learning Exercises, 135
References, 136
Further Reading, 136
Part II. Classroom Tests and Assessments, 139
6. Planning Classroom Tests and Assessments, 139
The Purpose of Classroom Testing and Assessment, 140
Pretesting, 140
Testing and Assessment During Instruction, 141
End-of-Instruction Testing and Assessment, 141
Developing Specifications for Tests and Assessments, 142
Building a Table of Specifications, 143
Other Examples of Specifications, 147
Using a One-Way Classification System, 149
Selecting Appropriate Types of Items and Assessment Tasks, 150
The Objective Test Item, 151
Other Types of Performance Assessment, 154
Comparative Advantages of Objective Test Items and Performance Assessment Tasks, 155
Selecting the Most Appropriate Types of Items and Tasks, 155
Considerations in Preparing Relevant Test Items and Assessment Tasks, 158
Matching Items and Tasks to Intended Outcomes, 158
Obtaining a Representative Sample of Items and Tasks, 160
Eliminating Irrelevant Barriers to the Performance, 162
Avoiding Unintended Clues in Objective Test Items, 163
General Suggestions for Writing Test Items and Assessment Tasks, 166
Focusing on Improving Learning and Instruction, 167
Summary, 168
Learning Exercises, 169
References, 170
Further Reading, 170
7. Constructing Objective Test Items: Simple Forms, 171
Short-Answer Items, 172
Uses of Short-Answer Items, 172
Advantages and Limitations of Short-Answer Items, 175
Suggestions for Constructing Short-Answer Items, 176
True–False or Alternative-Response Items, 179
Uses of True–False Items, 179
Advantages and Limitations of True–False Items, 182
Suggestions for Constructing True–False Items, 184
Matching Exercises, 186
Uses of Matching Exercises, 188
Advantages and Limitations of Matching Exercises, 188
Suggestions for Constructing Matching Exercises, 189
Summary, 192
Learning Exercises, 193
References, 193
Further Reading, 193
8. Constructing Objective Test Items: Multiple-Choice Forms, 194
Characteristic of Multiple-Choice Items, 194
Uses of Multiple-Choice Items, 196
Measuring Knowledge Outcomes, 196
Measuring Outcomes at the Understanding and Application Levels, 199
Advantages and Limitations of Multiple-Choice Items, 202
Suggestions for Constructing Multiple-Choice Items, 205
Summary, 216
Learning Exercises, 216
Further Reading, 217
9. Measuring Complex Achievement: The Interpretive Exercise, 218
Nature of the Interpretive Exercise, 219
Forms and Uses of the Interpretive Exercise, 219
Ability to Recognize Inferences, 220
Ability to Recognize Warranted and Unwarranted Generalizations, 221
Ability to Recognize Assumptions, 222
Ability to Recognize the Relevance of Information, 222
Ability to Apply Principle, 222
Use of Pictorial Materials, 223
Advantages and Limitations of Interpretive Exercises, 227
Suggestions for Constructing Interpretive Exercises, 228
Summary, 234
Learning Exercises, 234
Further Reading, 235
10. Measuring Complex Achievement: Essay Questions, 236
Forms and Uses of Essay Questions, 237
Restricted-Response Essay Questions, 238
Extended-Response Essays, 239
Summary Comparison of Learning Outcomes Measured, 240
Advantages and Limitations of Essay Questions, 240
Advantages, 240
Limitations, 242
Suggestions for Constructing Essay Questions, 243
Scoring Criteria, 248
Scoring Rubrics for Restricted-Response Essay Questions, 249
Analytic Scoring Rubrics for Extended-Response Essays, 249
Holistic Scoring Rubrics for Extended-Response Essays, 251
Suggestions for Scoring Essay Questions, 254
Summary, 256
Learning Exercises, 258
References, 258
Further Reading, 259
11. Measuring Complex Achievement: Performance-Based Assessments, 260
Types of Performance-Based Assessment, 261
Restricted-Response Performance Tasks, 262
Extended Performance Tasks, 264
Advantages and Limitations of Performance Assessments, 266
Advantages, 266
Limitations, 268
Suggestions for Constructing Performance Tasks, 268
Performance Criteria, 271
Scoring Rubrics and Rating Scales, 271
Types of Rating Scales, 274
Uses of Rating Scales, 276
Common Errors in Rating, 277
Principles of Effective Rating, 278
Checklists, 281
Student Participation in Rating, 284
Summary, 285
Learning Exercises, 286
References, 286
Further Reading, 287
12. Portfolios, 288
What Qualifies as a Portfolio of Student Work?, 289
Potential Strengths and Weaknesses of Portfolios, 290
Purpose of Portfolios, 291
Instructional Purposes, 293
Assessment Purposes, 294
Current Accomplishments and Progress, 295
Showcase and Documentation Portfolios, 295
Finished and Working Portfolios, 295
Guidelines for Portfolio Entries, 296
An Example of a Graduation Portfolio, 297
Examples of Statewide and Districtwide Portfolio Guidelines, 298
Examples of Classroom Portfolio Guidelines, 301
Guidelines and Students’ Role in Selection of Portfolio Entries and Self-Evaluation, 304
Evaluation Criteria, 307
Using Portfolios in Instruction and Communication, 310
Summary, 310
Learning Exercises, 311
References, 311
Further Reading, 312
13. Assessment Procedures: Observational Techniques, Peer Appraisal, and Self-Report, 313
Anecdotal Records, 314
Uses of Anecdotal Records, 316
What Behaviors to Observe and Record, 316
Advantages and Limitations of Anecdotal Records, 317
Effective Use of Anecdotal Records, 319
Student Judgments and Reports, 321
Peer Appraisal, 322
Guess-Who Technique, 322
Self-Report Techniques, 324
Attitude Measurement, 325
Published Attitude Scales, 328
Interest Inventories, 328
Published Interest Inventories, 329
Personality Measures, 331
Personality Inventories, 331
Projective Techniques, 332
Summary, 332
Learning Exercises, 334
Further Reading, 334
14. Assembling, Administering, and Appraising Classroom Tests and Assessments, 336
Assembling the Classroom Test, 337
Recording Test Items, 337
Reviewing Test Items and Assessment Tasks, 337
Arranging Items in the Test, 341
Preparing Directions for the Test or Assessment, 342
Reproducing the Test, 347
Administering and Scoring Classroom Tests and Assessments, 347
Administration, 347
Scoring the Test, 349
Appraising Classroom Tests and Assessments, 351
Determining Item and Task Effectiveness, 351
Simplified Item-Analysis Procedures, 354
Cautions in Interpreting Item-Analysis Results, 358
Application of Item-Analysis Principles with Performance-Based Assessments, 362
Building a File of Effective Items and Tasks, 363
Summary, 364
Learning Exercises, 366
References, 366
Further Reading, 366
15. Grading and Reporting, 367
Functions of Grading and Reporting Systems, 368
Instructional Uses, 368
Reports to Parents/Guardians, 369
Administrative and Guidance Uses, 369
Types of Grading and Reporting Systems, 370
Traditional Letter-Grade System, 370
Pass–Fail System, 371
Checklists of Objectives, 371
Letters to Parents/Guardians, 372
Portfolios of Student Work, 373
Parent–Teacher Conferences, 373
Multiple Grading and Reporting Systems, 374
Guidelines for Developing a Multiple Grading and Reporting System, 376
Assigning Letter Grades, 378
Determining What to Include in a Grade, 378
Combining Data in Assigning Grades, 379
Selecting the Proper Frame of Reference for Grading, 381
Determining the Distribution of Grades, 383
Record-Keeping and Grading Software, 386
Conducting Parent–Teacher Conferences, 387
Reporting Standardized Test Results to Parents, 389
Describing What the Test Measures, 390
Explaining the Meaning of Test Scores, 390
Clarifying the Accuracy of Test Scores, 392
Discussing the Use of Test Results, 392
Summary, 392
Learning Exercises, 394
References, 394
Further Reading, 395
Part III. Selecting and Using Published Tests, 397
16. Achievement Tests, 397
Characteristics of Standardized Achievement Tests, 398
Standardized Tests Versus Informal Classroom Tests, 399
Standardized Achievement Test Batteries, 402
Supplements to Standardized Tests, 406
Diagnostic Batteries for Instructional Use, 407
Achievement Tests in Specific Areas, 408
Separate Content-Oriented Tests, 409
Reading Tests, 409
Readiness Tests, 411
Customized Achievement Tests, 413
Individual Achievement Tests, 414
Summary, 414
Learning Exercises, 416
Further Reading, 416
17. Aptitude Tests, 417
Achievement and Aptitude Tests, 417
Types of Learning Measured: The Ability Spectrum, 418
Types of Predictions Made with Achievement and Aptitude Tests, 419
Scholastic Aptitude and Learning Ability, 420
Group Tests of Learning Ability, 420
Single-Score Tests, 420
Tests Yielding Separate Scores, 421
Choosing the Appropriate Test, 426
Individual Tests, 426
Stanford–Binet Scale, Fifth Edition, 427
Wechsler Scales, 428
Cautions in Interpreting and Using Learning Ability Scores, 430
Culture-Fair Testing, 431
Differential Aptitude Testing, 432
Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT™), 434
Summary, 436
Learning Exercises, 436
References, 437
Further Reading, 437
18. Test Selection, Administration, and Use, 438
Obtaining Information About Published Tests, 439
Buros Institute of Mental Measurements Guides, 440
Educational Testing Service (ETS) Test Collection, 441
Test Publishers’ Catalogs, 441
Testing Standards, 441
Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education, 441
Other Sources of Test Information, 442
Selecting Appropriate Tests, 443
Defining Testing Needs, 443
Narrowing the Choice, 445
Locating Suitable Tests, 445
Obtaining Specimen Sets, 445
Reviewing Test Materials, 446
Using a Test Evaluation Form, 447
Administering Published Tests, 448
Test Administration, 448
Improving Students’ Test-Taking Skills, 451
Unsound and Unethical Test Preparation Practices, 452
Using Results of Published Tests, 453
Possible Uses of Published Tests, 453
Misuses of Published Tests, 456
Summary, 457
Learning Exercises, 458
References, 458
Further Reading, 459
19. Interpreting Test Scores and Norms, 460
Methods of Interpreting Test Scores, 461
Raw Scores, 461
Criterion-Referenced and Standards-Based Interpretations, 462
Norm-Referenced Interpretation, 464
Grade Norms, 465
Percentile Rank, 469
Standard Scores, 472
The Normal Curve and the Standard Deviation Unit, 472
Types of Standard Scores, 474
Comparison of Score Systems, 479
Profiles, 480
Profile Narrative Reports, 482
Skill Analysis, 482
Judging the Adequacy of Norms, 484
Using Local Norms, 486
Cautions in Interpreting Test Scores, 486
Summary, 489
Learning Exercises, 491
References, 491
Further Reading, 492
Appendix A. Elementary Statistics, 493
Organizing and Displaying Scores, 494
Measures of Central Tendency, 501
Measures of Variability, 503
Coefficient of Correlation, 507
Linear Regression Coefficients, 511
A Final Caution, 512
References, 512
Appendix B. Professional Journals for Locating Measurement and Assessment Articles, 513
Appendix C. Contents Standards, 515
References, 515
Appendix D. Standards for Teacher Competence in Educational Assessment of Students, 517
Appendix E. Test Publishers, 524
Appendix F. Selected Published Tests, 525
Appendix G. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, 527
References, 533
Appendix H. Relating Assessment Procedures to Instructional Objectives, 534
Relating Test Items to Instructional Objectives, 534
Relating Performance Assessment Tasks to Instructional Objectives, 537
Relating Assessment Procedures Using an Expanded Table of Specifications, 538
Name Index, 540
Subject Index, 542

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