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Copyright, ii
Acknowledgments, xiii
Introduction, xv
The Purpose of This Book, xv
Learning Formal Research Should Begin Early, xv
Research Is More Than an Academic Requirement, xvi
Key Features of This Edition, xvi
New Topics, xvi
Support for Developing a Research Project, xvii
And so . . . Bon Voyage!, xvii
Part I. The Fundamentals, 1
Chapter 1. What Is Research?, 1
What Research Is Not, 1
What Research Is, 2
Exploring Research in Your Field, 8
Browsing the Periodicals Section of the Library, 8
Finding Journals on the Internet, 9
Practical Application: Evaluating the Research of Others, 9
Checklist: Reflective Questions to Consider When Evaluating Research, 10
Guidelines: Benefiting From Others’ Research, 11
For Further Reading, 11
Chapter 2. Tools of Research, 12
General Tools of Research, 12
The Library and Its Resources as a Tool of Research, 13
The Library of the Quiet Past, 13
The Library of the Stormy Present, 14
How to Access Information Quickly and Efficiently, 14
The Computer and Its Software as a Tool of Research, 16
Taking Advantage of the Internet, 18
Accessing the Internet, 19
Learning More About the Internet, 20
Practical Application: Using the Internet to Facilitate Communication, 20
Practical Application: Using E-mail, 20
Guidelines: Getting Started on E-mail, 21
Measurement as a Tool of Research, 21
Interpretation of the Data, 23
Four Scales of Measurement, 25
Validity and Reliability of Measurement, 28
Statistics as a Tool of Research, 30
The Lure of Statistics, 30
Primary Functions of Statistics, 30
The Human Mind as a Tool of Research, 31
Critical Thinking, 31
Deductive Logic, 32
Inductive Reasoning, 33
The Scientific Method, 34
Theory Building, 34
Collaboration With Others, 35
Language as a Tool of Research, 36
The Value of Knowing Two or More Languages, 37
The Importance of Writing, 37
Practical Application: Communicating Effectively Through Writing, 37
Guidelines: Writing to Communicate, 38
Guidelines: Using a Word Processor, 40
Practical Application: Identifying Important Tools in Your Discipline, 41
Checklist: Interviewing an Expert Researcher, 42
Reflections on Significant Research, 42
For Further Reading, 43
Part II. Focusing Your Research Efforts, 44
Chapter 3. The Problem: The Heart of the Research Process, 44
Finding Research Projects, 44
Practical Application: Identifying and Describing the Research Problem, 46
Guidelines: Finding a Legitimate Problem, 46
Guidelines: Stating the Research Problem, 48
Checklist: Evaluating the Research Problem, 52
Dividing the Research Problem Into Subproblems, 52
Subproblems Versus Pseudo-Subproblems, 53
Characteristics of Subproblems, 53
Identifying Subproblems, 54
Every Problem Needs Further Delineation, 56
Stating the Hypotheses and/or Research Questions, 56
Delimiting the Research, 57
Defining the Terms, 58
Stating the Assumptions, 59
Importance of the Study, 59
Ordering the Topics in a Research Proposal, 59
A Sample Research Proposal, 60
Practical Application: Writing the First Sections of a Proposal, 62
Checklist: Evaluating Your Proposed Research Project, 63
Practical Application: Reappraising a Proposed Research Problem, 64
Guidelines: Fine-Tuning Your Research Problem, 64
For Further Reading, 65
Chapter 4. Review of the Related Literature, 66
Understanding the Role of the Review, 66
Sources and Strategies for Locating Related Literature, 67
Using the Library Catalog, 67
Using Indexes, Abstracts, and Other General References, 68
Using the Library’s Online Databases, 69
Additional Strategies for Zeroing in on Relevant Literature, 71
Practical Application: Conducting a Literature Search, 73
Guidelines: Using Your Library Time Efficiently, 74
Organizing the Information You Have Collected, 76
Creating Computer Databases, 77
Knowing When to Quit, 77
Practical Application: Beginning Your Review of the Related Literature, 78
Evaluating, Organizing, and Synthesizing the Literature, 78
Practical Application: Writing the Section on the Related Literature, 79
Guidelines: Writing a Clear and Cohesive Literature Review, 79
A Sample Research Proposal, 81
For Further Reading, 84
Chapter 5. Planning Your Research Project, 85
Planning a General Approach, 85
The Basic Format of All Research, 85
Research Planning Versus Research Methodology, 87
General Criteria for a Research Project, 87
The Nature and Role of Data in Research, 88
What Are Data?, 88
Data Are Transient and Ever Changing, 89
Primary Data Versus Secondary Data, 89
Criteria for the Admissibility of Data, 90
Identifying Appropriate Measurement Instruments, 91
Linking Data and Research Methodology, 93
Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches, 94
Considering the Validity of Your Method, 97
Internal Validity, 97
External Validity, 99
Validity in Qualitative Research, 100
Ethical Issues in Research, 101
Protection from Harm, 101
Informed Consent, 101
Right to Privacy, 102
Honesty with Professional Colleagues, 103
Internal Review Boards, 104
Professional Codes of Ethics, 104
Planning for Data Collection, 105
Practical Application: Choosing a Research Approach, 106
Guidelines: Deciding Whether to Use a Quantitative or Qualitative Approach, 106
Practical Application: Judging the Feasibility of a Research Project, 108
Checklist: Determining Whether a Proposed Research Project Is Realistic and Practical, 109
When You Can’t Anticipate Everything in Advance: The Value of a Pilot Study, 110
Practical Application: Establishing Research Criteria and Justifying Your Research Methodology, 111
Practical Application: Developing a Plan of Attack, 112
Using Project Management Software and Electronic Planners, 112
Keeping an Optimistic and Task-Oriented Outlook, 114
For Further Reading, 114
Chapter 6. Writing the Research Proposal, 116
Researcher and Architect: Planners in Common, 116
Characteristics of a Proposal, 117
A Proposal Is a Straightforward Document, 117
A Proposal Is Not a Literary Production, 118
A Proposal Is Clearly Organized, 118
Organizing a Research Proposal, 119
Formatting Headings and Subheadings, 120
Practical Application: Writing Your Proposal, 121
Guidelines: Writing the First Draft, 121
Guidelines: Revising Your Proposal, 125
Common Weaknesses in Research Proposals, 128
Practical Application: Strengthening Your Proposal, 129
Checklist: Features Detracting From Proposal Effectiveness, 129
Final Thoughts About Proposal Writing, 130
A Sample Research Proposal, 131
For Further Reading, 134
Part III. Qualitative Research Methodologies, 135
Chapter 7. Qualitative Research, 135
The Nature of the Research Problem and Planning in Qualitative Research, 136
When to Choose a Qualitative Approach, 136
Qualitative Research Designs, 137
Case Study, 137
Ethnography, 139
Phenomenological Study, 141
Grounded Theory Study, 142
Content Analysis, 144
Collecting Data in Qualitative Research, 145
Sampling, 146
Observations, 147
Interviews, 148
Practical Application: Conducting Interviews in a Qualitative Study, 148
Guidelines: Conducting a Productive Interview, 149
Using Technology to Facilitate Data Collection and Transcription, 152
Organizing and Analyzing the Data From Qualitative Studies, 152
Using Computer Databases to Facilitate Data Organization and Interpretation, 154
Practical Application: Planning a Qualitative Study, 154
Checklist: Planning a Qualitative Study, 155
Criteria for Evaluating Qualitative Research, 156
Practical Application: Evaluating a Qualitative Study, 157
Checklist: Evaluating Qualitative Research Studies, 157
A Sample Dissertation, 158
For Further Reading, 162
Chapter 8. Historical Research, 164
Data Sources in Historical Research, 165
Collecting Historical Records, 168
Online Databases for Historical Events, 168
Practical Application: Handling Historical Data Systematically, 168
A Paper-and-Pencil Approach, 169
A Computerized Approach to Collecting and Organizing Your Data, 169
Evaluating and Interpreting Historical Data, 169
External Evidence, 170
Internal Evidence, 170
Considering Historical Time and Historical Space, 171
Historical Time, 172
Historical Space, 173
Psychological or Conceptual Historical Research, 175
Searching for Roots, 175
Practical Application: Historical Research Writing, 175
Checklist: Comparing Two Records of a Significant Event in History, 176
Guidelines: Writing the Historical Research Report, 177
A Sample Dissertation, 177
For Further Reading, 181
Part IV. Quantitative Research Methodologies, 182
Chapter 9. Descriptive Research, 182
Descriptive Research Designs, 182
Observation Studies, 182
Correlational Research, 183
Developmental Designs, 186
Survey Research, 187
Using Checklists and Rating Scales, 189
Practical Application: Planning and Conducting Interviews, 191
Guidelines: Conducting Interviews in a Quantitative Study, 191
An Example in International Relations, 192
Practical Application: Constructing and Administering a Questionnaire, 194
Guidelines: Constructing a Questionnaire, 194
Guidelines: Maximizing Your Return Rate for a Mailed Questionnaire, 198
Using Databases, Word Processing, and Mail Merge in Developing Questionnaire Materials, 202
Using Scanners to Facilitate Data Tabulation, 202
Practical Application: Computerizing Data Collection in Descriptive Research, 202
Using the Internet to Collect Questionnaire Data, 203
Choosing a Sample in a Descriptive Study, 204
Sampling Designs, 205
Sampling in Surveys of Very Large Populations, 213
Identifying a Sufficient Sample Size, 213
Bias in Research Sampling, 214
Practical Application: Population Analysis for a Descriptive Survey, 217
Checklist: Analyzing a Population, 217
Interpreting Data in Descriptive Research, 218
Some Final Suggestions, 218
A Sample Dissertation, 218
For Further Reading, 222
Chapter 10. Experimental and Ex Post Facto Designs, 223
Independent and Dependent Variables, 224
The Importance of Control, 225
Overview of Experimental and Ex Post Facto Designs, 228
Pre-Experimental Designs, 229
Design 1: One-Shot Experimental Case Study, 229
Design 2: One-Group Pretest–Posttest Design, 230
Design 3: Static Group Comparison, 231
True Experimental Designs, 231
Design 4: Pretest–Posttest Control Group Design, 231
Design 5: Solomon Four-Group Design, 231
Design 6: Posttest-Only Control Group Design, 232
Design 7: Within-Subjects Design, 232
Quasi-Experimental Designs, 233
Design 8: Nonrandomized Control Group Pretest–Posttest Design, 234
Design 9: Simple Time-Series Design, 234
Design 10: Control Group, Time-Series Design, 235
Design 11: Reversal Time-Series Design, 235
Design 12: Alternating Treatments Design, 235
Design 13: Multiple Baseline Design, 236
Using Designs 11, 12, and 13 in Single-Subject Studies, 237
Ex Post Facto Designs, 238
Design 14: Simple Ex Post Facto Design, 239
Factorial Designs, 240
Design 15: Randomized Two-Factor Design, 240
Design 16: Combined Experimental and Ex Post Facto Design, 240
Meta-Analyses, 245
Conducting Experiments on the Internet, 245
Testing Your Hypotheses, and Beyond, 246
Practical Application: Identifying Research Designs, 246
A Sample Dissertation, 247
For Further Reading, 251
Chapter 11. Strategies for Analyzing Quantitative Data, 253
Exploring and Organizing a Data Set, 253
Organizing Data to Make Them Easier to Think About and Interpret, 256
Using Computer Spreadsheets to Organize and Analyze Data, 257
Choosing Appropriate Statistics, 259
Functions of Statistics, 260
Considering the Nature of the Data, 261
Descriptive Statistics, 265
Points of Central Tendency, 265
Measures of Variability: Dispersion and Deviation, 269
Measures of Association: Correlation, 272
Inferential Statistics, 275
Estimating Population Parameters, 276
Testing Hypotheses, 278
Meta-Analysis, 282
Using Statistical Software Packages, 283
Interpreting the Data, 284
A Sample Dissertation, 285
Practical Application: Analyzing Data in a Quantitative Study, 288
Checklist: Questions to Consider When Choosing a Statistical Procedure, 288
For Further Reading, 289
Part V. Preparing the Research Report, 291
Chapter 12. Technical Details: Style, Format, and Organization of the Research Report, 291
Getting Started, 291
“Surfing” the Internet for Writing Assistance, 291
Learn by Looking, 292
Planning a Research Report, 292
Description of the Research Problem, 293
Description of the Method, 293
Presentation of the Data, 294
Interpretation of the Data, 295
Concluding the Report, 296
A Graphic Organizer for the Research Report, 297
Front Matter and End Matter, 298
Preliminary Pages, 298
Endnotes and Footnotes, 299
Reference List, 300
Appendix Content, 302
Organizing the Research Report, 302
Preparing the Report, 304
Style of Prose, 304
Principles of Writing, 305
Practical Application: Developing a Writing Schedule, 306
Guidelines: Developing a Workable Schedule, 306
Practical Application: Critiquing a Research Report, 307
Checklist: Criteria for Critiquing a Research Report, 307
Beyond the Unpublished Research Report: Presenting and Publishing, 309
Paper Presentations, 309
Journal Articles, 310
Sharing Authorship, 310
A Closing Thought, 310
For Further Reading, 311
Appendix A. Using a Spreadsheet: Microsoft Excel, 312
Using Excel to Keep Track of Literature Resources, 312
Using Excel to Record and Recode Data, 314
Reorganizing Data in Excel, 316
Using Excel to Perform Simple Statistical Analyses, 317
Appendix B. Using SPSS, 319
Creating a Data Set, 319
Computing Basic Descriptive Statistics, 321
Computing Inferential Statistics, 322
References, 325
Index, 329

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