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Copyright, ii
Preface, v
Lessons from the Past . . . Optimism About the Future . . . A Spirit of Advocacy, vii
Voices of Individuals and Participation, viii
Responsive and Responsible Educational Practices, x
Supplements, xii
Acknowledgments, xv
Selected Features, xxv
Photo Credits, xxvii
Chapter 1. Disabilities and Special Education: Making a Difference, 2
Disability and Social Justice, 4
Differing Perspectives About Disabilities, 5
Perceptions Make a Difference, 7
Language Makes a Difference: People First, 11
Disability as a Minority, 11
Protections for Civil Rights and Education, 12
Disabilities and Students, 19
Making a Difference Through Special Education, 21
Origins of Special Education, 21
Responsive Education, 22
Increased Accessibility, 23
Data-Based Practices, 24
Frequent Monitoring of Progress, 25
Collaborative Teams, 26
Emerging Trends: Differentiating for All, 27
Technology Integration, 28
Multitiered Instruction, 28
Summary, 30
Chapter 2. Individualized Special Education Programs: Planning and Delivering Services, 32
Access to the General Education Curriculum, 34
High-Quality General Education, 34
Universal Design for Learning, 35
Differentiated Instruction, 37
Instructional Accommodations and Modifications, 37
Assistive Technology, 38
Individualized Data-Based Interventions and Services, 38
Settings, Services, and Personnel, 39
Models for Inclusive Education, 39
Intensive and Sustained Services and Supports, 40
Setting and Grouping Options, 41
Related Services and Providers, 44
Highly Qualified Special Educators, 45
The IEP Process, 46
Steps in the IEP Process, 47
The IEP Team: Collaborative Multidisciplinary Partnerships, 52
Roles of Education Professionals, 53
Roles of Families, 54
Roles of Students, 55
Tools for Individualized Programs, 56
Individualized Family Service Plans (IFSPs), 56
Individualized Education Programs (IEPs), 57
Transition Components IEPs, 62
Behavioral Intervention Plans, 63
Evaluating Progress and Revising Programs, 64
Eligibility, 64
State- and Districtwide Assessments, 64
Alternate Assessments, 66
Monitoring Progress, 67
Change in Services or Supports, 69
Summary, 69
Chapter 3. Cultural and Linguistic Diversity, 72
Where We’ve Been . . . What’s on the Horizon?, 74
Historical Context, 74
Challenges That Diversity Presents, 76
Cultural and Linguistic Diversity Defined, 77
Cultural Diversity, 77
Linguistic Diversity, 77
Diversity and Disability, 77
Characteristics, 78
Language, 78
Cultural Comprehension, 81
Behavior, 82
Prevalence, 84
Diverse Students, 86
Diverse Students with Disabilities, 87
Over- and Underrepresentation of Diverse Students, 87
Causes and Prevention, 90
Causes, 90
Prevention, 93
Overcoming Challenges, 94
Assessment, 96
Early Identification, 96
Prereferral, 96
Identification, 97
Evaluation: High-Stakes Testing, 99
Early Intervention, 100
Teaching Diverse Students with Disabilities, 101
Access to the General Education Curriculum Through Multicultural Education, 101
Instructional Accommodations, 103
Data-Based Practices, 104
Technology, 108
Transition, 108
Collaboration, 109
Collaboration with Support Personnel: Bilingual Paraprofessionals, 109
Collaborative Practices: Interpreters, 110
Partnerships with Families and Communities, 110
Summary, 113
Chapter 4. Speech or Language Impairments, 114
Where We’ve Been . . . What’s on the Horizon?, 116
Historical Context, 116
Challenges That Speech or Language Impairments Present, 117
Speech or Language Impairments Defined, 120
The Communication Process, 120
Speech Impairments, 123
Language Impairments, 125
Characteristics, 127
Speech, 128
Language, 129
Prevalence, 134
Causes and Prevention, 135
Causes, 136
Prevention, 137
Overcoming Challenges, 138
Assessment, 138
Early Identification, 138
Prereferral, 138
Identification, 139
Evaluation: Diagnosis of Language Impairments, 140
Early Intervention, 141
Teaching Students with Speech or Language Impairments, 142
Access to the General Education Curriculum, 143
Instructional Accommodations, 144
Data-Based Practices, 144
Technology, 147
Transition, 149
Collaboration, 149
Collaboration with Support Personnel: SLPs, 150
Collaborative Practices: SLP Services in the General Education Setting, 151
Partnerships with Families and Communities, 151
Summary, 152
Chapter 5. Learning Disabilities, 154
Where We’ve Been . . . What’s on the Horizon?, 156
Historical Context, 156
Challenges That Learning Disabilities Presents, 157
Learning Disabilities Defined, 159
Unexpected Underachievement, 160
Reading/Learning Disabilities, 161
Mathematics/Learning Disabilities, 162
Resistant to Treatment, 162
Characteristics, 162
Negative Attributions, 163
Nonstrategic Approaches to Learning, 164
Inability to Generalize, 164
Faulty Information Processing, 165
Poor Social Skills, 165
Prevalence, 167
Causes and Prevention, 168
Causes, 168
Prevention, 168
Overcoming Challenges, 169
Assessment, 169
Early Identification, 169
Prereferral: Response to Intervention (RTI), 170
Identification, 173
Evaluation: Progress Monitoring, 174
Early Intervention, 175
Core Skills of Mathematics, 175
Core Skills of Reading, 176
Early Reading Instruction, 176
Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities, 177
Access to the General Education Curriculum: Early Intervening, 177
Instructional Accommodations, 179
Data-Based Practices, 180
Technology, 182
Transition, 185
Collaboration, 187
Collaboration with Related Services Providers: School Counselors, 187
Collaborative Practices: Personal Goal Setting, 187
Partnerships with Families and Communities, 189
Homework, 189
College Selection, 190
Summary, 192
Chapter 6. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, 194
Where We’ve Been . . . What’s on the Horizon?, 196
Historical Context, 196
Challenges That ADHD Presents, 197
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Defined, 200
General Education Students with ADHD, 200
Special Education Students with ADHD, 200
Coexisting Disabilities, 200
Characteristics, 202
Behavioral Characteristics, 202
Academic Performance, 203
Social Behavior, 204
Prevalence, 206
Causes and Prevention, 208
Causes, 208
Prevention, 209
Overcoming Challenges, 209
Assessment, 210
Early Identification, 210
Prereferral, 211
Identification, 211
Evaluation: Testing Accommodations, 212
Early Intervention, 213
Teaching Students with ADHD, 213
Access to the General Education Curriculum, 213
Instructional Accommodations, 214
Data-Based Practices, 215
Technology, 218
Transition, 219
Collaboration, 219
Collaboration with Support Personnel: School Nurses, 220
Collaborative Practices: Information Sharing, 220
Partnerships with Families and Communities, 220
Summary, 222
Chapter 7. Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 224
Where We’ve Been . . . What’s on the Horizon?, 226
Historical Context, 226
Challenges That Emotional and Behavioral Disorders Present, 227
Emotional or Behavior Disorders Defined, 228
Externalizing Behaviors, 232
Internalizing Behaviors, 233
Low-Incidence Disorders, 234
Excluded Behavior Problems, 234
Characteristics, 235
Social Skills, 235
Academic Performance, 237
Delinquency, 238
Prevalence, 239
Causes and Prevention, 240
Causes, 241
Prevention, 243
Overcoming Challenges, 244
Assessment, 247
Early Identification: Screening, 247
Prereferral: Early Intervention, 248
Identification, 248
Evaluation: Testing Accommodations, 249
Early Intervention, 249
Benefits, 249
Signals of Risk, 250
Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 251
Access to the General Education Curriculum, 252
Instructional Accommodations, 252
Data-Based Practices: Functional Assessment-Based Interventions, 253
Technology, 257
Transition, 257
Collaboration, 258
Collaborating with Related Service Providers: Working with Mental Health Providers, 258
Collaborative Practices: The Potential Role of the PBS Team, 259
Partnerships with Families and Communities, 259
Parents’ Role in Supporting Mental Health Services, 260
Foster Care, 260
Summary, 261
Chapter 8. Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation, 262
Where We’ve Been . . . What’s on the Horizon?, 264
Historical Context, 264
Challenges That Intellectual Disabilities Presents, 266
Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation Defined, 268
Intellectual Functioning, 269
Adaptive Behavior, 270
Systems of Supports, 271
Characteristics, 271
Cognition, 271
Adaptive Behavior, 273
Need for Supports, 274
Prevalence, 275
Causes and Prevention, 275
Causes, 276
Prevention, 278
Overcoming Challenges, 279
Assessment, 280
Early Identification, 281
Prereferral, 281
Identification, 281
Evaluation: Alternate Assessments, 282
Early Intervention, 283
Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities, 284
Access to the General Education Curriculum, 284
Instructional Accommodations, 284
Data-Based Practices: Self-Determination, 284
Technology, 286
Transition, 288
Employment, 289
Friendships, 291
Independent Living, 291
Collaboration, 292
Collaboration with Related Services Providers: Therapeutic Recreation Specialists, 292
Collaborative Practices: Developing Extracurricular Involvement, 293
Partnerships with Families and Communities, 293
Summary, 294
Chapter 9. Physical or Health Disabilities, 296
Where We’ve Been . . . What’s on the Horizon?, 299
Historical Context, 300
Challenges That Physical and Health Disabilities Present, 301
Physical and Health Disabilities Defined, 302
Physical Disabilities, 303
Health Disabilities, 306
Chronic Illnesses, 308
Infectious Diseases, 309
Characteristics, 309
Epilepsy, 309
Cerebral Palsy, 312
Sickle Cell Anemia, 313
Prevalence, 313
Causes and Prevention, 314
Causes, 314
Prevention, 316
Overcoming Challenges, 316
Assessment, 317
Early Identification, 317
Prereferral, 318
Identification, 318
Evaluation: Testing Accommodations, 318
Early Intervention, 319
Teaching Students with Physical and Health Disabilities, 319
Access to the General Education Curriculum, 320
Instructional Accommodations, 320
Data-Based Practices: Universal Design, 321
Technology, 322
Transition, 323
Collaboration, 324
Collaborating with Related Services Providers: School Nurses, PTs, and OTs, 325
Collaborative Practices: School Nurse as Case Manager, 325
Partnerships with Families and Communities, 326
Summary, 328
Chapter 10. Deaf and Hard of Hearing, 330
Where We’ve Been . . . What’s on the Horizon?, 332
Historical Context, 332
Challenges That Hearing Loss Presents, 334
Deafness and Hard of Hearing Defined, 335
The Process of Hearing, 336
Types of Hearing Loss, 338
Degree of Hearing Loss, 338
Age of Onset, 339
Characteristics, 339
Students Who Are Members of the Deaf Community, 339
Students with Profound Hearing Loss, 340
Students Who Are Hard of Hearing, 341
Prevalence, 342
Causes and Prevention, 343
Causes, 343
Prevention, 343
Overcoming Challenges: Hearing Aids and Cochlear Implants, 344
Assessment, 347
Early Identification: Universal Newborn Hearing Screening, 347
Prereferral: Hearing Screenings, 348
Identification: Auditory Assessments, 348
Evaluation: State- and Districtwide Assessments, 350
Early Intervention, 351
Teaching Students with Hearing Loss, 351
Access to the General Education Curriculum: Deafness and LRE, 352
Instructional Accommodations, 354
Data-Based Practices: Communication Systems and Scaffolding, 355
Technology, 358
Transition, 360
Collaboration, 361
Collaboration with Related Services Providers: Educational Interpreters, 361
Collaborative Practices: Respecting Roles, 361
Partnerships with Families and Communities, 363
Summary, 364
Chapter 11. Low Vision and Blindness, 366
Where We’ve Been . . . What’s on the Horizon?, 368
Historical Context, 368
Challenges That Visual Loss Presents, 370
Low Vision and Blindness Defined, 372
The Process of Vision, 373
Types of Visual Loss, 374
Degree of Visual Loss, 376
Age of Onset, 376
Characteristics, 376
Students with Low Vision, 376
Students Who Are Blind, 377
Prevalence, 381
Causes and Prevention, 382
Causes, 382
Prevention, 382
Overcoming Challenges: Technology, 383
Assessment, 386
Early Identification, 386
Prereferral: Vision Screenings, 386
Identification: Visual Assessments, 387
Evaluation: Testing Accommodations, 388
Early Intervention, 388
Play, 388
Independence, 390
Teaching Students with Visual Loss, 390
Access to the General Education Curriculum: Literacy, 390
Instructional Accommodations, 391
Data-Based Practices, 392
Technology, 394
Transition, 395
Postsecondary Options, 395
Transition to Work, 395
Access to the Community, 396
Collaboration, 397
Collaborating with Related Service Providers: TVIs and O&M Instructors, 397
Collaborative Practices: A Team of Professionals, 398
Partnerships with Families and Communities, 399
Summary, 400
Chapter 12. Autism Spectrum Disorders, 402
Where We’ve Been . . . What’s on the Horizon?, 404
Historical Context, 404
Challenges That Autism Spectrum Disorders Present, 405
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) Defined, 406
Autism, 408
Asperger Syndrome, 411
Pervasive Developmental Disorder—Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS), 412
Characteristics, 413
A Strength-Based Perspective, 414
Prevalence, 414
Causes and Prevention, 415
Causes, 415
Prevention, 416
Overcoming Challenges, 416
Assessment, 417
Early Intervention, 418
TEACCH, 420
The Young Autism Program (YAP), 420
Comprehensive Approaches, 420
Teaching Students with ASD, 421
Accessing the General Education Curriculum, 421
Instructional Accommodations, 421
Data-Based Practices, 422
Technology, 425
Transition, 425
Transition to Preschool, 425
Transition to Services for Adults, 427
Collaboration, 428
Collaborating with Support Personnel: Behavior Analysts, 428
Collaborative Practices: Minimizing Conflict, 429
Partnerships with Families and Communities, 429
Summary, 431
Chapter 13. Very Low-Incidence Disabilities: Multiple-Severe Disabilities, Deaf-Blindness, and Traumatic Brain Injury, 432
Where We’ve Been . . . What’s on the Horizon?, 434
Historical Context, 434
Challenges That Low-Incidence Disabilities Present, 436
Multiple-Severe Disabilities, 438
Characteristics of Multiple-Severe Disabilities, 438
Prevalence, 439
Causes and Prevention, 439
Deaf-Blindness, 440
Characteristics of Deaf-Blindness, 440
Prevalence, 441
Causes and Prevention, 442
Traumatic Brain Injury, 442
Characteristics of TBI, 443
Prevalence, 444
Causes and Prevention, 445
Educational Considerations for Students with Low-Incidence Disabilities, 445
Assessment, 445
Early Intervention, 448
Teaching Students with Low-Incidence Disabilities, 450
Access to the General Education Curriculum, 450
Transition, 453
Collaboration, 455
Collaborating with Educational Specialists: Interveners, 455
Collaborative Practices: The Role of Interveners, 456
Partnerships with Families and Communities, 457
Summary, 458
Chapter 14. Giftedness and Talents, 460
Where We’ve Been . . . What’s on the Horizon?, 462
Historical Context, 462
Challenges That Giftedness Talents Present, 464
Giftedness and Talents Defined, 465
Characteristics, 468
Females, 468
Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students, 469
Students with Disabilities, 472
Prevalence, 473
Causes and Prevention, 475
Causes, 475
Prevention, 475
Overcoming Challenges, 476
Assessment, 476
Early Identification, 476
Prereferral, 476
Identification, 478
Evaluation, 479
Early Intervention, 479
Teaching Gifted and Talented Students, 480
Access to the General Education Curriculum: Acceleration, 480
Instructional Accommodations, 482
Data-Based Practices, 484
Technology, 486
Transition, 488
Collaboration, 488
Collaboration with Specialists: Gifted Education Teachers, 489
Collaborative Practices: Creating a Responsive Education, 489
Partnerships with Families and Communities, 489
Families, 489
Communities, 490
Summary, 491
Appendix A. CEC Knowledge and Skill Standards Common Core, 493
Appendix B. CEC Knowledge and Skill Standards Common Core and Associated Subcategories, 497
Glossary, 501
References, 509
Name Index, 539
Subject Index, 547

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