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Copyright, iv
About the Authors, v
Preface, xxi
Acknowledgments, xxiv
Chapter 1. Classroom Life, 1
Action-System Knowledge, 2
Classroom Vignette An Elementary School Example, 4
Analysis of the Class Discussion, 7
Motivation, 7
Classroom Management, 8
Instruction, 9
Teacher Expectations, 12
Learning to Analyze Classrooms, 13
Classroom Vignette A Secondary School Example, 14
Effective Teaching, 15
Increasing Teacher Awareness through Classroom Observation, 17
Classrooms Are Complex, 17
Teachers’ Awareness of Their Classroom Behavior, 17
Benefits of Classroom Observation, 18
Observational Records, 20
Personal Biases, 20
Dangers of Interpretation, 21
Case Study Techniques, 22
Discovering Bias, 22
Using Case Study for Self-Study, 23
Conducting Case Studies, 24
Fact versus Interpretation, 25
Simplifying the Observational Task, 28
Reliability of Observations, 29
General Plan for Observing in Classrooms, 30
Using Research and Observational Feedback, 31
Teachers as Decision Makers, 31
Summary, 32
Suggested Activities and Questions, 33
Appendix 1.1 Observational Methods, 33
Chapter 2. Teacher Expectations, 47
Two Types of Teacher Expectation Effects, 49
How Expectations Become Self-Fulfilling, 50
Brophy and Good’s Model, 51
Practice Examples, 51
Analysis of Examples, 53
How Teachers Form Expectations, 54
How Teachers Communicate Expectations to Students, 55
Students’ Perceptions of Differential Teacher Treatment, 57
Factors That Affect Expectation Communication, 59
Context, 59
Teachers’ Personal Characteristics, 59
Students’ Personal Characteristics, 60
Group, Class, and School Expectation Effects, 62
Group Effects, 62
Class Effects as Related to Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Perceptions, 63
School Effects, 64
Expectation Effects on Students’ Personal and Social Development, 65
Making Expectations Work for You, 65
In Developing Expectations, Consider Students’ Full Range of Abilities, 67
Keep Expectations Flexible and Current, 67
Emphasize the Positive, 68
Summary, 69
Suggested Activities and Questions, 69
Chapter 3. Management I: Preventing Problems, 71
Classroom Vignettes, 72
Management Research, 72
Student Role, 72
Classroom Examples, 73
Essential Teacher Attitudes, 74
The Teacher as a Model, 74
What Can Be Learned from Observing Models, 75
Factors That Affect What Is Learned from Observing Models, 75
Modeling as a Classroom Management Tool, 76
Modeling Social Interactions, 76
General Management Principles, 77
Plan Rules and Procedures in Advance, 77
Establish Clear Rules and Procedures When Needed, 78
Let Students Assume Responsibility, 79
Minimize Disruptions and Delays, 79
Plan Independent Activities as Well as Organized Lessons, 79
Management as Motivation and Problem Prevention, 80
Kounin’s Study, 80
Later Studies, 82
Getting the School Year Off to a Good Start, 82
Third-Grade Study, 82
Junior High Study, 83
Maintaining an Effective Learning Environment, 84
Use Positive Language to Cue Desired Behavior, 84
Recognize and Reinforce Desired Behavior, 84
Praising Effectively, 86
Getting and Holding Attention, 87
Focus Attention When Beginning Lessons, 88
Keep Lessons Moving at a Good Pace, 89
Monitor Attention during Lessons, 89
Stimulate Attention Periodically, 89
Maintain Accountability, 89
Terminate Lessons That Have Gone on Too Long, 90
Independent Work, 90
Self-Regulated Management, 91
Expanded Conceptions of Teaching and Management, 92
Building Learning Communities, 92
Managing Small-Group Learning, 93
Summary, 94
Suggested Activities and Questions, 95
Chapter 4. Management II: Coping with Problems Effectively, 98
Classroom Vignettes Elementary School Example, 98
Middle School Example, 99
Junior High School Example, 99
High School Example, 100
What Management Problems Do Teachers Face?, 100
Dealing with Minor Inattention and Misbehavior, 101
Monitor the Entire Classroom Regularly, 101
Ignore Minor, Fleeting Misbehavior, 101
Stop Sustained Minor Misbehavior, 101
Dealing with Prolonged or Disruptive Misbehavior, 102
Appropriate Direct Correction, 102
Inappropriate Direct Correction, 103
Conducting Investigations, 103
Conflict Resolution, 104
Gordon, 104
Jones and Jones, 105
Schoolwide Programs, 106
Helping Students to Deal with Conflict, 107
Punishment, 108
Effective Punishment, 109
Inappropriate Punishment, 110
Punishment as a Last Resort, 111
Choosing Your Role, 111
Teachers as Socialization Agents, 112
Difficulties of Socialization, 114
Coping with Serious Adjustment Problems, 114
Analyzing Problem Behavior, 123
Finding Out What Problem Behavior Means, 123
Arranging a Conference, 124
Bringing in Parents and Other Adults, 124
Other Approaches to Classroom Management, 125
Assertive Discipline, 126
Contingency Contracting, 126
Cognitive Behavior Modification, 128
Bearing the Unbearable, 130
Summary, 131
Suggested Activities and Questions, 132
Appendix 4.1 Analysis of a Problem-Solving Meeting, 133
Chapter 5. Motivation, 143
Strategies for Motivating Students, 144
Classroom Vignettes Frank Thomas’s Class, 145
Jane Strong’s Class, 145
Questions, 145
Contextual Views of Motivation, 146
Basic Motivational Concepts, 146
Expectancy X Value Model of Motivation, 147
Essential Preconditions for Successful Use of Motivational Strategies, 148
Supportive Environment, 148
Appropriate Level of Challenge or Difficulty, 149
Meaningful Learning Objectives, 149
Moderation and Variation in Strategy Use, 149
Motivating by Maintaining Success Expectations, 150
Program for Success, 150
Teach Goal Setting, Performance Appraisal, and Self-Reinforcement, 151
Help Students to Recognize Effort-Outcome Linkages, 153
Encouraging Effort: An Example, 154
Remedial Work with Discouraged Students, 155
Concluding Comments about Success Expectations, 156
Inducing Students to Value Learning Activities, 157
Strategies for Supplying Extrinsic Motivation, 157
Reward Good Effort and Performance, 157
Call Attention to the Instrumental Value of Academic Activities, 160
Competition: A Traditionally Popular but Problematic Extrinsic Incentive, 160
Concluding Comments about Extrinsic Motivational Strategies, 161
Strategies for Capitalizing on Students’ Intrinsic Motivation, 162
Self-Determination Theory, 162
Interest Theory, 163
Opportunity to Exercise Autonomy and Make Choices, 163
Adapting Activities to Students’ Interests, 164
Opportunities for Active Response, 165
Inclusion of Higher-Level Objectives and Divergent Questions, 165
Feedback Features, 166
Incorporation of Game Features into Activities, 166
Opportunities for Students to Create Finished Products, 166
Inclusion of Fantasy or Simulation Elements, 166
Opportunities for Students to Interact with Peers, 167
An Example: Project-Based Learning, 167
Concluding Comments about Intrinsic Motivational Strategies, 167
Strategies for Stimulating Student Motivation to Learn, 168
Model Your Own Motivation to Learn, 168
Communicate Desirable Expectations and Attributions, 169
Minimize Performance Anxiety, 170
Project Intensity When Appropriate, 170
Project Enthusiasm for the Curriculum, 170
Induce Curiosity or Suspense, 171
Make Abstract Content More Personal, Concrete, or Familiar, 171
Induce Dissonance or Cognitive Conflict, 172
Induce Students to Generate Their Own Motivation to Learn, 172
State Learning Goals and Provide Advance Organizers, 173
Model Task-Related Thinking and Problem Solving, 173
Induce Metacognitive Awareness of Learning Strategies, 173
Concluding Comments: Motivating Students to Learn, 174
Summary, 175
Suggested Activities and Questions, 176
Chapter 6. Students’ Interactions with One Another, 181
Educational Excellence and Equity, 182
Desegregation, 183
Between-Class Grouping (Tracking), 184
Effects on Achievement, 185
Affective and Social Effects, 185
Within-Class Ability Grouping, 187
Planned Heterogeneous Grouping, 189
Cooperative Learning, 189
Task Structure, 190
Incentive Structure, 190
Well-Known Cooperative Learning Programs, 191
Brief, Informal Cooperative Learning Structures, 194
Controlled Conflict and Controversy in Small Groups, 194
Research on Cooperative Learning Methods, 195
Cooperative versus Traditional Methods, 195
Group Composition and Processes, 196
Limitations of Findings on Small-Group Learning, 197
Potential Advantages and Disadvantages of Cooperative Groups, 198
Conclusions from Research on Cooperative Learning, 200
Implementation Guidelines: Cooperative Learning, 201
Providing Opportunity for Self-Evaluation, 203
Arranging Tutorial Assistance for Students, 208
Cross-Age Tutoring, 209
Peer Tutoring by Classmates, 210
Learning in Dyads, 211
Implementation Guidelines: Peer Tutoring, 212
Summary, 213
Suggested Activities and Questions, 214
Chapter 7. Addressing Heterogeneity in Learning Ability and Achievement Progress, 216
A Heterogeneous Classroom, 217
Toward the Inclusive Classroom, 219
From Exclusion to Mainstreaming to Inclusion, 220
Helping Struggling Students to Succeed: A Historical and Research-Based Perspective, 222
Mastery Learning, 224
Differentiated Instruction, 225
Differentiation via Instructional Materials or Programs, 226
Teacher-Mediated Differentiation, 229
Curriculum-Based Measurement, 231
General Principles for Differentiating Instruction, 231
Matching Assignments to Student Ability, 232
Preparing Assignments, 232
Independent Work and Learning Centers, 234
Self-Regulation of Independent Work, 241
Examples of Elementary Learning Center Assignments, 241
Independent Work for Secondary Students, 242
Summary, 244
Suggested Activities and Questions, 244
Chapter 8. Affirming the Cultures and Supporting the Achievements of Diverse Students, 247
Classroom Vignette, 247
Introduction, 249
Toward Culturally Responsive Teaching, 250
Learn about Your Students, Their Families, and the Community, 252
Teaching English Language Learners, 254
Teaching in Urban Schools, 257
Cultivate Parent Involvement, 260
Personalizing in Response to Individual Differences, 261
Gender Differences, 261
Learning Style Differences, 267
Lack of Research Support for Claimed Effects, 267
Brain-Based Education and Multiple Intelligences, 268
Conclusions Regarding Learning Styles, 269
Accommodating Students’ Personal Characteristics, 269
Summary, 272
Suggested Activities and Questions, 273
Chapter 9. Teaching Worthwhile Content for Understanding, Appreciation, and Application, 275
Classroom Vignettes Laura Hirsch, 276
Rachel Dewey, 276
Comparing Laura and Rachel, 278
Sources of Curriculum, 278
Content Selection and Representation, 279
Teaching for Understanding, Appreciation, and Application of Knowledge, 280
Knowledge Networks, 282
Teach Important Content in Depth, 283
Focus on Powerful Ideas, 283
Authentic Activities, 284
Additional Criteria for Selecting or Developing Learning Activities, 288
Teaching for Understanding: Subject-Specific Examples, 289
Literacy, 290
Mathematics, 291
Science, 291
Social Studies, 293
Keep the Goals in Sight, 294
Teaching for Understanding in an Era of High-Stakes Testing, 295
So What Can You Do in the Meantime?, 297
Summary, 298
Suggested Activities and Questions, 298
Chapter 10. Active Teaching, 301
Instructional Methods as Means to Accomplish Curricular Goals, 301
Research Relating Teacher Behavior to Student Learning, 303
School Effects Research, 303
Teacher Effects Research, 304
An Example, 305
Presenting Information to Students, 306
When to Present Information, 307
How to Present Information, 308
Clarity, 308
Enthusiasm, 311
Encouraging Student Questions, 311
Embedding Information Presentation within Narrative Formats, 311
Effective Demonstrations, 313
Developing Understandings through Interactive Discourse, 315
Questions as Scaffolds for Learning, 315
Cognitive Levels of Questions, 316
Questions to Avoid, 317
Characteristics of Good Questions, 318
Calling on Students to Respond to Questions, 320
Conducting Discussions, 323
Structuring and Scaffolding Activities and Assignments, 325
Structuring and Scaffolding Students’ Learning, 325
Homework Assignments, 328
Summary, 330
Suggested Activities and Questions, 332
Chapter 11. Helping Students to Construct Usable Knowledge, 335
Classroom Vignette, 335
Basic Constructivist Principles, 337
Knowledge as Constructed, 337
The Role of Prior Knowledge, 338
Knowledge Restructuring and Conceptual Change, 339
Social Constructivist Views of Learning and Teaching, 340
Sociocultural Views of Learning and Teaching, 342
Situated Learning, 342
Scaffolding Students’ Learning, 343
Transferring Responsibility from Teacher to Students, 344
Inquiry Teaching, 345
Subject-Specific Variations on Basic Instructional Models, 347
Literacy, 347
Mathematics, 348
Science, 349
Social Studies, 349
Constructivist Teaching: Appealing but Difficult, 349
The Transmission Model as a Straw Person, 349
Constraints on Constructivist Models, 351
An Example: Nuthall’s Research, 352
Situational Differences in the Feasibility of Constructivist Teaching, 353
Blending Information Presentation with Social Construction of Knowledge, 355
Conclusions about Constructivist Teaching, 355
Matching Teaching Methods to Learning Goals, 356
Planning Your Teaching: Face up to the Complexities, 358
Adapt Teaching to the Situation, 358
Using Research to Inform Your Teaching, 359
Suggested Activities and Questions, 361
Chapter 12. Assessing Students’ Learning, 364
Assessing and Grading Student Performance, 364
Test Length and Content Coverage, 365
Cognitive Levels of Test Content, 366
Instructional Objectives, 367
Communicating Expectations to Students, 368
Fact versus Concepts, 369
Essay Test Items, 369
Scoring: The Essay Test, 370
Objective Test Items, 371
Criticisms of Multiple-Choice Testing, 372
Other Forms of Objective Questions, 373
Conclusions: Types of Test Items, 375
Additional Assessment Procedures, 376
Performance Tests, 376
Using Rating Scales, 386
Portfolios, 386
Encouraging Student Performance, 388
Obtaining Feedback from Students, 389
Implications for Teachers: Classroom Assessment and Test-Taking Skills, 390
Assigning Grades, 390
Grading Methods, 391
Implications for Teachers: A Class Grading Example, 392
Recommendations for Grading, 395
Adjusting Grades, 396
Contracting for Specific Grades, 397
Combining Evaluations to Form a Grade, 397
Summary, 399
Suggested Activities and Questions, 400
Chapter 13. Technology and Classroom Teaching, 401
Introduction, 401
Why Technology Can Be Useful, 402
Defining Your Teaching Role, 403
Computer Use in the Classroom, 404
Computer Availability, 408
Some Helpful Technology Tools, 410
What Knowledge of Technology Do Students Have?, 413
Developing Your Own Assignments to Personalize Learning, 414
Using Software Packages, 415
Social Studies and Science, 415
Teaching with Artifacts and Historical Source Material, 415
Learning Environments and Project-Based Work, 417
Managing Technology Use, 421
Intellectual Push, 421
Internet Usage Issues, 422
Summary, 422
Suggested Activities and Questions, 423
Chapter 14. Growing as a Teacher, 424
Classroom Vignettes An Elementary School Example, 425
A Middle School Example, 425
A High School Example, 425
What Do New Teachers Need to Do?, 426
How Do Teachers Spend Their Time?, 427
How Prepared Are New Teachers?, 427
Obstacles to Teacher Self-Improvement, 428
Many New Teachers Leave the Field, 429
Lack of Satisfaction, 429
Lack of Teaching Skill, 429
Improving as a Teacher, 430
Experimenting and Improving, 432
Teaching Is Difficult, 432
Self-Evaluation, 433
Classroom Vignette, 434
You Are Not Alone, 435
Self-Study Groups, 436
Develop a Positive Perspective, 437
Improving Workplace Conditions for Teaching, 438
Types of Professional Collaboration, 439
Schools as Social Systems, 440
The Growing Importance of Staff Development, 441
Improving the Entire School, 442
Staff Development in Effective Schools, 442
Teacher–Teacher Communication, 443
In-Service on School-Level Concerns, 443
The Problem, 443
School District In-Service, 444
Summary, 445
Suggested Activities and Questions, 447
References, 449
Name Index, 489
Subject Index, 495

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