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Why Do You Need this New Edition?, i
Copyright, iv
to the student . . ., xiii
to the instructor . . ., xvi
About the Authors, xxv
Chapter 1. Mind, Behavior, and Psychological Science, 3
1.1. Key Question: What Is Psychology—And What Is It Not?, 4
Psychology: It’s More than You Think, 5
Psychology Is Not Psychiatry, 6
Psychology Matters: Thinking Critically about Psychology and Pseudopsychology, 7
1.2. How Do Psychologists Develop New Knowledge?, 11
The Five Steps of the Scientific Method, 12
Five Types of Psychological Research, 15
Controlling Biases in Psychological Research, 18
Ethical Issues in Psychological Research, 20
Questions Science Cannot Answer, 21
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn Psychology, 21
1.3. What Are Psychology’s Six Main Perspectives?, 23
Separation of Mind and Body and the Modern Biological Perspective, 23
The Founding of Scientific Psychology and the Modern Cognitive Perspective, 25
The Behavioral Perspective: Rejection of Introspection and a Focus on Observable Behavior, 28
The Whole-Person Perspectives: Psychodynamic, Humanistic, and Trait and Temperament, 29
The Developmental Perspective: Changes Arising from Nature and Nurture, 30
The Sociocultural Perspective: The Individual in Context, 30
The Changing Face of Psychology, 31
Psychology Matters: Psychology as a Major, 34
Critical Thinking Applied: Facilitated Communication, 35
Chapter Summary, 36
Discovering Psychology Viewing Guide, 39
Chapter 2. Biopsychology, Neuroscience, and Human Nature, 43
2.1. Key Question: How Are Genes and Behavior Linked?, 46
Evolution and Natural Selection, 46
Genetics and Inheritance, 48
Psychology Matters: Choosing Your Children’s Genes, 51
2.2. How Does the Body Communicate Internally?, 53
The Neuron: Building Block of the Nervous System, 53
The Nervous System, 59
The Endocrine System, 61
Psychology Matters: How Psychoactive Drugs Affect the Nervous System, 64
2.3. How Does the Brain Produce Behavior and Mental Processes?, 65
Windows on the Brain, 66
Three Layers of the Brain, 68
Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex, 74
Cerebral Dominance, 78
The Split Brain Revisited: “I’ve Half a Mind to . . .”, 80
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn Psychology, 83
Critical Thinking Applied: Left Brain vs. Right Brain, 84
Chapter Summary, 85
Discovering Psychology Viewing Guide, 87
Chapter 3. Learning and Human Nurture, 91
3.1. Key Question: What Sort of Learning Does Classical Conditioning Explain?, 94
The Essentials of Classical Conditioning, 95
Applications of Classical Conditioning, 99
Psychology Matters: Taste Aversions and Chemotherapy, 101
3.2. How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning?, 102
Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism, 102
The Power of Reinforcement, 102
The Problem of Punishment, 108
A Checklist for Modifying Operant Behavior, 111
Operant and Classical Conditioning Compared, 112
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn Psychology, 114
3.3. How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning?, 115
Insight Learning: Köhler in the Canaries with the Chimps, 115
Cognitive Maps: Tolman Finds out What’s on a Rat’s Mind, 117
Observational Learning: Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism, 118
Rethinking Behavioral Learning in Cognitive Terms, 120
Brain Mechanisms and Learning, 120
“Higher” Cognitive Learning, 122
Psychology Matters: Fear of Flying Revisited, 122
Critical Thinking Applied: Do Different People Have Different “Learning Styles”?, 124
Chapter Summary, 127
Discovering Psychology Viewing Guide, 129
Chapter 4. Memory, 133
4.1. Key Question: What Is Memory?, 135
Metaphors for Memory, 135
Memory’s Three Basic Tasks, 137
Psychology Matters: Would You Want a “Photographic” Memory?, 138
4.2. How Do We Form Memories?, 139
The First Stage: Sensory Memory, 140
The Second Stage: Working Memory, 142
The Third Stage: Long-Term Memory, 146
Psychology Matters: “Flashbulb” Memories: Where Were You When . . . ?, 151
4.3. How Do We Retrieve Memories?, 152
Implicit and Explicit Memory, 152
Retrieval Cues, 152
Other Factors Affecting Retrieval, 154
Psychology Matters: On the Tip of Your Tongue, 156
4.4. Why Does Memory Sometimes Fail Us?, 157
Transience: Fading Memories Cause Forgetting, 157
Absent-Mindedness: Lapses of Attention Cause Forgetting, 160
Blocking: Access Problems, 160
Misattribution: Memories in the Wrong Context, 160
Suggestibility: External Cues Distort or Create Memories, 161
Bias: Beliefs, Attitudes, and Opinions Distort Memories, 163
Persistence: When We Can’t Forget, 164
The Advantages of the “Seven Sins” of Memory, 164
Improving Your Memory with Mnemonics, 165
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn Psychology, 166
Critical Thinking Applied: The Recovered Memory Controversy, 168
Chapter Summary, 170
Discovering Psychology Viewing Guide, 172
Chapter 5. Thinking and Intelligence, 175
5.1. Key Question: What Are the Components of Thought?, 177
Concepts, 178
Imagery and Cognitive Maps, 180
Thought and the Brain, 182
Psychology Matters: Schemas and Scripts Help You Know What to Expect, 183
5.2. What Abilities Do Good Thinkers Possess?, 185
Problem Solving, 186
Judging and Making Decisions, 189
Becoming a Creative Genius, 192
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn Psychology, 195
5.3. How Is Intelligence Measured?, 196
Binet and Simon Invent a School Abilities Test, 197
American Psychologists Borrow Binet and Simon’s Idea, 198
Problems with the IQ Formula, 199
Calculating IQs “on the Curve”, 200
IQ Testing Today, 201
Psychology Matters: What Can You Do for an Exceptional Child?, 202
5.4. Is Intelligence One or Many Abilities?, 205
Psychometric Theories of Intelligence, 205
Cognitive Theories of Intelligence, 206
Cultural Definitions of Intelligence, 208
Animals Can Be Intelligent—But Do They Think?, 210
Psychology Matters: Test Scores and the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy, 212
5.5. How Do Psychologists Explain IQ Differences Among Groups?, 213
Intelligence and the Politics of Immigration, 214
What Evidence Shows That Intelligence Is Influenced by Heredity?, 214
What Evidence Shows That Intelligence is Influenced by Environment?, 215
Heritability (Not Heredity) and Group Differences, 216
Psychology Matters: Stereotype Threat, 220
Critical Thinking Applied: The Question of Gender Differences, 222
Chapter Summary, 223
Discovering Psychology Viewing Guide, 225
Chapter 6. Development Over the Lifespan, 229
6.1. Key Question: What Innate Abilities Does the Infant Possess?, 232
Prenatal Development, 232
The Neonatal Period: Abilities of the Newborn Child, 234
Infancy: Building on the Neonatal Blueprint, 235
Psychology Matters: Psychological Traits in Your Genes, 242
6.2. What are the Developmental Tasks of Childhood?, 243
How Children Acquire Language, 244
Cognitive Development: Piaget’s Theory, 246
Social and Emotional Development, 252
Psychology Matters: The Puzzle of ADHD, 257
6.3. What Changes Mark the Transition of Adolescence?, 260
Adolescence and Culture, 260
Physical Maturation in Adolescence, 261
Adolescent Sexuality, 262
Moral Development: Kohlberg’s Theory, 263
Cognitive Development in Adolescence, 263
Social and Emotional Issues in Adolescence, 265
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn Psychology: Cognitive Development in College Students, 267
6.4. What Developmental Challenges Do Adults Face?, 268
Early Adulthood: Explorations, Autonomy, and Intimacy, 269
The Challenges of Midlife: Complexity and Generativity, 271
Late Adulthood: The Age of Integrity, 273
Psychology Matters: A Look Back at the Twin Studies, 276
Critical Thinking Applied: The Mozart Effect, 278
Chapter Summary, 280
Discovering Psychology Viewing Guide, 283
Chapter 7. Sensation and Perception, 287
7.1. Key Question: How Does Stimulation Become Sensation?, 289
Transduction: Changing Stimulation to Sensation, 290
Thresholds: The Boundaries of Sensation, 292
Signal Detection Theory, 293
Psychology Matters: Sensory Adaptation, 294
7.2. How Are the Senses Alike? And How Are They Different?, 294
Vision: How the Nervous System Processes Light, 295
Hearing: If a Tree Falls in the Forest . . ., 301
How the Other Senses Are Like Vision and Hearing, 305
Synesthesia: Sensations across the Senses, 308
Psychology Matters: The Experience of Pain, 309
7.3. What Is the Relationship between Sensation and Perception?, 312
Perceptual Processing: Finding Meaning in Sensation, 313
Perceptual Ambiguity and Distortion, 314
Theoretical Explanations for Perception, 318
Seeing and Believing, 325
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn Psychology, 326
Critical Thinking Applied: Subliminal Perception and Subliminal Persuasion, 327
Chapter Summary, 329
Discovering Psychology Viewing Guide, 331
Chapter 8. States of Consciousness, 335
8.1. Key Question: How Is Consciousness Related to Other Mental Processes?, 337
Tools for Studying Consciousness, 338
Models of the Conscious and Nonconscious Minds, 339
What Does Consciousness Do for Us?, 340
Levels of Consciousness, 341
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn Psychology, 342
8.2. What Cycles Occur in Everyday Consciousness?, 344
Daydreaming, 344
Sleep: The Mysterious Third of Our Lives, 345
Dreaming: The Pageants of the Night, 350
Psychology Matters: Sleep Disorders, 354
8.3. What Other Forms Can Consciousness Take?, 357
Hypnosis, 357
Meditation, 359
Psychoactive Drug States, 360
Psychology Matters: Dependence and Addiction, 367
Critical Thinking Applied: The Unconscious—Reconsidered, 369
Chapter Summary, 371
Discovering Psychology Viewing Guide, 373
Chapter 9. Emotion and Motivation, 377
9.1. Key Question: What Do Our Emotions Do For Us?, 379
The Evolution of Emotions, 379
Counting the Emotions, 380
Cultural Universals in Emotional Expression, 381
Psychology Matters: Emotional Differences between Men and Women Depend on Both Biology and Culture, 382
9.2. Where Do Our Emotions Come From?, 383
The Neuroscience of Emotion, 384
Psychological Theories of Emotion: Resolving Some Old Issues, 387
Psychology Matters: Arousal, Performance, and the Inverted U, 390
9.3. How Much Control Do We Have Over Our Emotions?, 392
Developing Emotional Intelligence, 392
Detecting Deception, 394
Psychology Matters: Controlling Anger, 396
9.4. Motivation: What Makes Us Act As We Do?, 397
How Psychologists Use the Concept of Motivation, 398
Types of Motivation, 398
Theories of Motivation, 399
The Unexpected Effects of Rewards on Motivation, 403
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn Psychology, 404
9.5. How Are Achievement, Hunger, and Sex Alike? Different?, 404
Achievement Motivation, 405
Hunger Motivation, 407
Sexual Motivation, 412
Psychology Matters: A Question of Will Power, Laughter, and Chocolate Cookies, 418
Critical Thinking Applied: Do “Lie Detectors” Really Detect Lies?, 420
Chapter Summary, 422
Discovering Psychology Viewing Guide, 425
Chapter 10. Personality: Theories of the Whole Person, 429
10.1. Key Question: What Forces Shape Our Personalities?, 431
Biology, Human Nature, and Personality, 432
The Effects of Nurture: Personality and the Environment, 432
The Effects of Nature: Dispositions and Mental Processes, 433
Social and Cultural Contributions to Personality, 433
Psychology Matters: Explaining Unusual People and Unusual Behavior, 434
10.2. What Persistent Patterns, or Dispositions, Make Up Our Personalities?, 435
Personality and Temperament, 436
Personality as a Composite of Traits, 437
Personality Disorders, 441
Psychology Matters: Finding Your Type, 442
10.3. What Mental Processes Are at Work within Our Personalities?, 443
Psychodynamic Theories: Emphasis on Motivation and Mental Disorder, 444
Humanistic Theories: Emphasis on Human Potential and Mental Health, 456
Social-Cognitive Theories: Emphasis on Social Learning, 459
Current Trends: The Person in a Social System, 461
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn Psychology, 462
10.4. What “Theories” Do People Use to Understand Themselves and Others?, 463
Implicit Personality Theories, 464
Self-Narratives: The Stories of Our Lives, 464
The Effects of Culture on Our Views of Personality, 465
Psychology Matters: Developing Your Own Theory of Personality, 467
Critical Thinking Applied: The Person-Situation Controversy, 468
Chapter Summary, 470
Discovering Psychology Viewing Guide, 473
Chapter 11. Social Psychology, 477
11.1. Key Question: How Does the Social Situation Affect Our Behavior?, 480
Social Standards of Behavior, 481
Conformity, 483
Obedience to Authority, 488
Cross-Cultural Tests of Milgram’s Research, 492
Some Real-World Extensions of the Milgram Obedience to Authority Paradigm, 493
The Bystander Problem: The Evil of Inaction, 494
Need Help? Ask for It!, 496
Psychology Matters: On Being “Shoe” at Yale U, 498
11.2. Constructing Social Reality: What Influences Our Judgments of Others?, 499
Interpersonal Attraction, 499
Making Cognitive Attributions, 504
Loving Relationships, 506
Cross-Cultural Research on the Need for Positive Self-Regard, 507
Prejudice and Discrimination, 508
Psychology Matters: The Sweet Smells of Attraction, 513
11.3. How Do Systems Create Situations that Influence Behavior?, 515
The Stanford Prison Experiment, 515
Chains of System Command, 517
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn Psychology, 520
Critical Thinking Applied: Is Terrorism “A Senseless Act of Violence, Perpetrated by Crazy Fanatics”?, 522
Chapter Summary, 524
Discovering Psychology Viewing Guide, 525
Chapter 12. Psychological Disorders, 529
12.1. Key Question: What Is Psychological Disorder?, 531
Changing Concepts of Psychological Disorder, 532
Indicators of Abnormality, 535
A Caution to Readers, 536
Psychology Matters: The Plea of Insanity, 537
12.2. How Are Psychological Disorders Classified in the DSM-IV?, 538
Overview of the DSM-IV Classification System, 539
Mood Disorders, 540
Anxiety Disorders, 544
Somatoform Disorders, 548
Dissociative Disorders, 549
Schizophrenia, 551
Developmental Disorders, 555
Adjustment Disorders and Other Conditions, 556
Gender Differences in Mental Disorders, 557
Psychology Matters: Shyness, 557
12.3. What Are the Consequences of Labeling People?, 558
Diagnostic Labels, Labeling, and Depersonalization, 559
The Cultural Context of Psychological Disorder, 559
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn Psychology, 560
Critical Thinking Applied: Insane Places Revisited—Another Look at the Rosenhan Study, 561
Chapter Summary, 563
Discovering Psychology Viewing Guide, 565
Chapter 13. Therapies for Psychological Disorders, 569
13.1. Key Question: What Is Therapy?, 571
Entering Therapy, 571
The Therapeutic Alliance and the Goals of Therapy, 572
Therapy in Historical and Cultural Context, 574
Psychology Matters: Paraprofessionals Do Therapy, Too, 575
13.2. How Do Psychologists Treat Psychological Disorders?, 576
Insight Therapies, 576
Behavior Therapies, 583
Cognitive–Behavioral Therapy: A Synthesis, 587
Evaluating the Psychological Therapies, 589
Psychology Matters: Where Do Most People Get Help?, 591
13.3. How Is the Biomedical Approach Used to Treat Psychological Disorders?, 593
Drug Therapy, 593
Other Medical Therapies for Psychological Disorders, 597
Hospitalization and the Alternatives, 599
Psychology Matters: What Sort of Therapy Would You Recommend?, 601
13.4. How Do the Psychological Therapies and Biomedical Therapies Compare?, 602
Depression: Psychological versus Medical Treatment, 604
Anxiety Disorders: Psychological versus Medical Treatment, 604
Schizophrenia: Psychological versus Medical Treatment, 605
“The Worried Well”: Not Everyone Needs Drugs, 605
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn Psychology, 605
Critical Thinking Applied: Evidence-Based Practice, 606
Chapter Summary, 609
Discovering Psychology Viewing Guide, 612
Chapter 14. Stress, Health, and Well-Being, 615
14.1. Key Question: What Causes Stress?, 617
Traumatic Stressors, 619
Chronic Stressors, 625
Psychology Matters: Student Stress, 629
14.2. How Does Stress Affect Us Physically?, 630
Physiological Responses to Stress, 631
Stress and the Immune System, 636
Psychology Matters: Using Drugs for Stress Relief: A Costly Defense, 637
14.3. Who Is Most Vulnerable to Stress?, 639
Type A Personality and Hostility, 640
Locus of Control, 642
Hardiness, 643
Optimism, 644
Resilience, 645
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn Psychology, 646
14.4. How Can We Reduce the Impact of Stress on Our Health?, 648
Psychological Coping Strategies, 649
Positive Lifestyle Choices: A “Two-for-One” Benefit to Your Health, 653
Putting It All Together: Developing Happiness and Subjective Well-Being, 656
Psychology Matters: Behavioral Medicine and Health Psychology, 658
Critical Thinking Applied: Is Change Really Hazardous to Your Health?, 660
Chapter Summary, 662
Discovering Psychology Viewing Guide, 665
Glossary, G-1
References, R-1
Photo Credits, C-1
Answers to Discovering Psychology Program Review Questions, A-1
Name Index, I-1
Subject Index, I-7

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