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Copyright, ii
Preface for the Student, xiii
Preface for the Instructor, xv
About the Author, xxv
Acknowledgments, xxvii
Part 1. Examining Personality, 1
Chapter 1. What Is Personality?, 2
What Are the Fundamental Questions Addressed by Personality Psychology?, 3
Big Questions and Science, 3
Questions and Inquiry, 4
Who Am I?, 4
Research in Focus: Casual Thinking and Scientific Thinking about People, 6
How and Why Are People Different?, 7
What Will My Future Be?, 8
Inside the Field: Does Becoming a Personality Psychologist Influence How You View Others?, 9
Different Kinds of Answers, 11
What Is the Personality System?, 11
A System of Systems, 11
Defining Personality, 14
Locating the Personality System, 15
What Is the Field of Personality Psychology?, 16
What Is a Field of Science?, 16
The Emergence of Modern Personality Psychology (1890–1949), 17
Evolving Viewpoints on the Field (1950 to the Present), 20
Training and Research in Personality Psychology, 23
Case Study: The Careers of Two Personality Psychologists, 24
Why Study Personality Psychology?, 25
The “Who Am I?” Question—A Part of Scientific Inquiry, 26
The “How and Why Are People Different?” Question—Asked in Personality Assessment, 26
The “What Is My Future?” Question—Prediction, Selection, and Change, 27
Disciplinary Crossroads: What Does Personality Psychology Offer Other Fields?, 29
How Is This Book Organized and What Will You Learn?, 30
Some Cautions and a Beginning, 30
Personality Psychology’s Answers, 30
Identifying Personality, 31
Parts of Personality, 32
Personality Organization, 33
Personality Development, 34
Chapter 2. Research in Personality Psychology, 38
Where Do Data Come From?, 39
Olympian Issues, 39
Observer Data, 41
The Life Sphere and External (Life) Data, 41
Personal-Report Data: Self-Judgments, Criterion-Convergence, and Thematic-Report, 42
Research in Focus: Are Self-Judgments or an Observer’s Judgments More Accurate?, 44
What Research Designs Are Used in Personality?, 45
Types of Research Designs, 45
The Case Study Method, 45
The Method of Observationism, 48
Case Study: Freud’s Case of Emmy von N., 50
Inside the Field: Funder’s Laws, 52
The Correlational Research Design, 53
Natural Experiments, 56
True Experimental Designs, 57
Disciplinary Crossroads: The Measurement of Length in the Physical Sciences, 58
What Does It Mean to Measure Personality?, 60
The Psychometric Approach, 60
Reliability, 62
Validity, 64
How Do Personality Psychologists Study So Many Variables?, 68
Multiple Variables and Multivariate Techniques, 68
The Logic of Factor Analysis, 68
Reading the Results of a Factor Analysis, 72
A Critique of Factor Analysis, 76
Chapter 3. Perspectives on Personality, 80
What Are Perspectives on Personality?, 81
Frameworks, Perspectives, and Theories, 81
Perspectives on Personality, 82
Personality Theories, 82
Micro-Theories and Research, 84
What Is the Biological Perspective?, 84
Evolutionary Theory Views the Person, 85
Natural and Sexual Selection, 85
A Micro-Theory about Jealousy and Evolution, 86
Biopsychology Views the Person, 87
The Nervous System and Its Influences on Psychology, 87
Disciplinary Crossroads: The Use of Psychiatric Drugs to Improve Personality, 90
A Micro-Theory That Traits Are Inherited, 91
Case Study: The Case of the Mathematician in the Guest Room, 93
What Is the Intrapsychic Perspective?, 94
The Trait Psychologist Views the Person, 94
The Nature of Traits and Their Role in Personality, 95
A Micro-Theory about Central Personality Traits, 97
Psychodynamic Theory Views the Person, 98
Defenses, Mental Models, and the Role of Dynamics, 99
A Micro-Theory of Hidden Sexual Desire, 100
What Is the Sociocultural Perspective?, 103
The Social-Cognitive View of the Person, 103
The Person and Environment in Interaction, 103
A Micro-Theory of Conditional Aggression, 105
The Cross-Cultural View of the Person, 107
A Micro-Theory of Collectivism versus Individualism, 107
What Is the Temporal-Developmental Perspective?, 109
A Psychosocial Stage Theory and Development, 109
A Micro-Theory of the Emergence of Traits, 110
The Humanistic and Positive Psychology Views of the Person, 110
A Micro-Theory of Empathy and Psychotherapy, 112
How Does One Cope with Multiple Theories?, 113
Which Theory Is Right?, 113
Research in Focus: Smith and Glass’s Comparison of Psychotherapies Based on Different Perspectives, 114
The Systems Approach, 115
Inside the Field: Translating One Perspective into Another, 118
Part 2. Parts of Personality, 123
Chapter 4. Motivation and Emotion, 124
What Are Motives?, 125
Motives, Instincts, and Needs, 125
Case Study: Jon Krakauer and the Uneasy Fulfillment of a Boyhood Dream, 126
Projective Measures of Motives, 128
Types of Motives, 129
Disciplinary Crossroads: The Projective Hypothesis of Shakespeare, 130
Self-Judgment of Motives, 131
How Are Motives Expressed?, 135
The Achievement Motive and Its Relation to Personality, 135
The Power Motive and Personality, 136
Disciplinary Crossroads: Achievement Motivation and Economic Progress, 137
The Affiliation Motive and Personality, 138
The Sex Drive and Related Motives, 139
Development and Personal Strivings, 139
What Are Emotions and Why Are They Important?, 140
The Motivation-Emotion Connection, 140
Emotions as an Evolved Signal System, 143
Cross-Cultural Issues, 144
Emotional States, Moods, and Emotion-Related Traits, 146
Inside the Field: Replicating Ekman’s Results, 147
What Are Emotional Traits and How Are They Expressed?, 148
The Two-Factor Approach to Measuring Emotion, 148
Affect Intensity, 151
From Emotional States to Emotion-Related Traits, 151
Research in Focus: Positioning the Emotional Dimensions of Inner Space, 153
How Are Emotional Traits Expressed?, 156
What Are Happy People Like?, 158
Natural Happiness, 158
Demographic Influences, 158
The Most Happy Students, 159
Chapter 5. Interior Selves, Interior Worlds, 164
What Are Mental Models?, 165
Mental Models and Their Structure, 166
Mental Models Are (Usually) Learned and Applied, 169
Differences in Models across People, 170
What Are Our Models of Ourselves?, 170
The Self and Self-Models, 170
Possible, Actual, and (Perhaps) Unconscious Selves, 171
Inside the Field: The International Society for Self and Identity (ISSI), 172
Research in Focus: Markus and Nurius on Possible Selves among College Students, 175
Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy, 176
Stories of the Self, 179
What Are Our Models of the World?, 179
Formal Models and Implicit Models, 179
Implicit Knowledge, 180
Disciplinary Crossroads: World Knowledge in the Field of Artificial Intelligence, 182
Learning Personality Types, 184
Implicit Theories of Personality, 187
The Concept of the Archetype, 187
What Are Our Models of Relationships?, 188
Significant Other Models, 188
Core Conflictual Relationship Themes, 189
Roles and Role Playing, 191
Case Study: Playing a Role While Playing Basketball?, 192
Morals and Values, 194
How Good Are Our Mental Models?, 196
Developing Constructive Models, 196
Avoiding Irrational Models, 197
Expressing Better Mental Models, 197
Chapter 6. Mental Abilities and Navigating the World, 202
What Is a Mental Ability?, 203
Questions about Mental Ability, 203
Case Study: Francis Galton’s Own Intelligence, 205
Mental Abilities and Society, 206
The Range of Mental Abilities: Three Examples, 206
What Are Some Major Mental Abilities?, 208
Verbal-Propositional Intelligence and Mental Development, 208
Inside the Field: Alfred Binet’s Rough Start, 208
Uncovering More Cognitive Intelligences, 211
Are There Additional Intelligences and Mental Abilities?, 213
Social Abilities and Related Intelligences, 213
Practical Intelligence, 214
Emotional Intelligence, 215
Measuring Creativity, 217
Research in Focus: Measuring Emotional Intelligence, 218
The Theory of g, 220
What Is the Relation between Personality and Intelligence?, 222
Personality Calls on Abilities, 222
The Relations among Mental Ability Traits and Other Traits, 223
Personality, Mental Abilities, and the Construction of Mental Models, 225
How Does Personality Express Its Abilities?, 226
Intelligence in the Expression of Thought, 226
Disciplinary Crossroads: Valued Qualities and Social Meritocracies, 230
Intelligences at School, 231
Intelligences and Other Mental Abilities at Work, 232
Mental Abilities in Relationships, 234
Personality and Mental Abilities: The Big Picture, 235
Chapter 7. The Conscious Self, 240
What Is the Conscious Self?, 241
The Appearance of the Conscious Self, 241
James’s Self-as-Knower, 242
Freud’s Concept of the Ego, 243
The Dialogical Self, 243
What Does It Mean for the Self to Be Conscious?, 244
What Is Consciousness?, 244
Scientific Accounting for the Feeling of Consciousness, 245
Is Consciousness of Recent Origin?, 246
The Brain and Consciousness, 247
Does the Self Possess Free Will?, 248
The Appearance of Will, 248
The Free Will–Determinism Debate, 249
Disciplinary Crossroads: The Idea of Free Will: Origins in Western Religious Thought, 250
Freedom from the Free Will Debate, 251
Voluntary Cause and Control, 251
Disciplinary Crossroads: Is There a Biophysics of Free Will?, 252
Are There Alternatives to the Conscious Self?, 254
Agencies, 254
Inside the Field: Some Personality Psychologists Really Don’t Like the Denial of Free Will, 255
Alters, 256
The Unconscious, Id, and Superego, 257
How Is the Conscious Self Expressed?, 258
Contents of Consciousness, 258
The Structure of Consciousness and Flow, 260
Case Study: An Example of Flow in Adolescence, 263
Levels of Consciousness, 264
Self-Determination Theory, 264
Research in Focus: Brain Correlates of Higher Consciousness, 266
Self-Control: A First Look, 267
Part 3. Personality Organization, 271
Chapter 8. How the Parts of Personality Fit Together, 272
What Is Personality Structure?, 273
Personality Structure Described, 273
Why Is Personality Structure Important?, 276
Multiple Personality Structures Exist, 277
Case Study: More on Christopher Langan and His Life, 278
Personality Structure Provides Organization, 279
How Are Personality Traits Structured?, 281
The Big Two and the Big Three, 283
The Big Five, 283
Beyond the Big Five, 285
Inside the Field: Does the Big Five Count as a Personality Structure?, 286
What Are Structural Models of Awareness and Why Do They Matter?, 287
Rationale for Structural Models of Awareness, 287
Consciousness and How Things Become Conscious, 288
The “No-Access” Unconscious, or Unconscious Proper, 289
Research in Focus: If There Are Structural Areas, What Are the Boundaries between Them Like?, 290
The Implicit or Automatic Unconscious, 291
The Unnoticed Unconscious, 292
The Dynamic Unconscious, 293
Can Identifying Key Functions of Mind Lead to Structural Divisions?, 294
The Id, Ego, and Superego as a Functional Model, 294
The Trilogy and Quaternity of Mind, 295
A Brain to Match?, 296
Disciplinary Crossroads: Was That Octopus You Saw Last Night Shy?, 302
Integration in the Systems Set, 303
What Are the Structural Connections between Personality and Environment?, 304
Structures of Social Interaction, 304
Using Structural Dimensions to Fill in Personality, 306
Extending Personality to the Life Space, 306
Do Structures Matter?, 308
Revisiting the Organization of Traits, 308
Traits of the Life Space, 309
Structure and the Description of the Person, 311
From Structures to Dynamics, 313
Chapter 9. Dynamics of Action, 316
What Are Dynamics of Action?, 317
Approaching Dynamics, 317
Case Study: The Mysterious Social Activities of Robert Leuci, 319
Dynamic Traits and Micro-Dynamics, 320
Mid-Level (Meso-) and Macro-Level Dynamics, 321
Dynamics and Their Change, 321
Research in Focus: Computer Models of Personality Dynamics, 322
Which Need Will Begin Action?, 323
Urges, Needs, and Presses, 323
Needs and Their Relative Strengths, 324
Determinant Needs and Subsidiary Needs, 325
Needs and Need Conflicts, 326
Need Fusion, 327
How Does Action Develop in the Mind?, 327
Motivation, Emotion, and Mood-Congruent Thought, 327
The Dynamic Lattice, 329
From Thought to Action, 330
Inside the Field: Greenwald’s Studies of Subliminal Perception and Motivation, 332
Partial Expressions and Slips of the Tongue, 333
How Are Acts Performed?, 335
The Communication Channels, 335
Conscious and Automatic Forms of Action, 338
Latent versus Manifest Content, 339
Stagecraft and Self-Presentation, 341
Disciplinary Crossroads: Deception in Myth and Literature, 343
Symbolic Interactionism and Social Alignment, 346
The Urge and the Situation, 348
Chapter 10. Dynamics of Self-Control, 352
What Are Dynamics of Self-Control?, 353
How Dynamics of Self-Control Are Distinctive, 353
The Need for Self-Control, 355
Aims of Self-Control, 355
How Does Self-Control Occur?, 356
The Self in Control, 356
Disciplinary Crossroads: Cybernetics, Personality, and Robots, 360
Personal Control as a Hierarchy of Feedback Loops, 360
The Search for—and Effect of—Feedback, 365
Dynamic Self-Control, 367
Is Self-Control Always Conscious?, 367
Automatic Control and Dissociation, 367
Dissociation and the Unconscious, 368
Individual Differences in Dissociation, 369
Case Study: An Example of Divided Consciousness, 371
Inside the Field: A Brief History of Hypnosis, 372
Nonconscious Personal Control: The Model of Hypnosis, 374
Positive Affirmations, 377
How Do We Deal with the Pain of Falling Short?, 378
Falling Short and Mental Defense, 378
Suppression, 378
Repression, 379
Specific Defense Mechanisms, 380
How Is Self-Control (or Its Absence) Expressed?, 383
The Search for Self-Control, 383
Control versus Impulsiveness, 384
Implications of Self-Control, 384
Research in Focus: The New Research on Developing Self-Control, 385
Part 4. Personality Development, 389
Chapter 11. Personality Development in Childhood and Adolescence, 390
What Is Personality Development?, 391
Questions of Personality Development, 391
Dividing the Life Span, 393
Research Designs in Developmental Studies, 396
Do Infants Have a Personality?, 396
The Infant’s Challenge, 396
Infant Temperament, 398
Attachment Patterns, 400
How Does the Young Child’s Personality Develop?, 403
The Young Child’s Self-Concept, 403
Case Study: Jay’s Self-Understanding, 405
Self-Control as a Part of Temperament, 406
Parents and the Family Context, 406
Disciplinary Crossroads: Cultural Influences on Child Personality, 407
Family Size and Birth Order, 409
Inside the Field: Does What Parents Do Matter?, 411
The Gendered World, 411
What Are the Challenges of Middle Childhood?, 414
Middle Childhood’s Challenges and Self-Concept, 414
From Temperament to Traits, 415
Overcontrolled, Undercontrolled, and Flexible Children, 416
Friendship Patterns, 418
What Are Adolescents Doing?, 419
Puberty and the Changing Self-Concept, 419
Research in Focus: Childhood Patterns and Experimentation with Drugs, 421
Sexual and Sex-Role Development, 422
Establishing Identity in Adolescence, 424
Chapter 12. Personality Development in Adulthood, 430
What Is the Nature of Adult Development?, 431
Questions of Adult Development, 431
The Transition to Adulthood, 433
Temperament and Traits: From Childhood through Adulthood, 433
Models of the Self and World, 435
Case Study: How Consistent Is Steven Reid’s Personality?, 436
What Are Young Adults Like?, 438
The Tasks of Young Adulthood, 438
Finding a Desirable Partner, 438
Research in Focus: Identical Twins Reared Apart, 442
In Search of Good Work, 444
How Does the Individual Traverse Middle Adulthood?, 445
Disciplinary Crossroads: Personality and the Future, 446
Staying Married, 446
Finding Occupational Success, 449
Personality and Health, 453
Who Adjusts Course?, 455
No Regrets?, 455
Helson’s Typology of Growth, 456
Where Is Personality Headed in the Concluding Parts of Life?, 457
Optimal Personality and Values, 459
Good Functioning, 459
Adding Strengths: Positive Psychology, 460
Strengths in Context, 461
Optimal Types, 461
Inside the Field: Abraham Maslow’s Early Life and His Theory of Self-Actualization, 464
A Final Life Review, 468
Postscript, 470
References, 471
Name Index, 509
Subject Index, 520
Photo Credits, PC-1

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