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Copyright, ii
Applications, xii
Preface, xiv
To Students, xviii
Use of Color, xix
Volume 1, 1
1. Introduction, Measurement, Estimating, 1
1-1. The Nature of Science, 2
1-2. Models, Theories, and Laws, 2
1-3. Measurement and Uncertainty; Significant Figures, 3
1-4. Units, Standards, and the SI System, 6
1-5. Converting Units, 8
1-6. Order of Magnitude: Rapid Estimating, 9
*1-7. Dimensions and Dimensional Analysis, 12
Summary, 14
Questions, 14
Problems, 14
General Problems, 16
2. Describing Motion: Kinematics in One Dimension, 18
2-1. Reference Frames and Displacement, 19
2-2. Average Velocity, 20
2-3. Instantaneous Velocity, 22
2-4. Acceleration, 24
2-5. Motion at Constant Acceleration, 28
2-6. Solving Problems, 30
2-7. Freely Falling Objects, 34
*2-8. Variable Acceleration; Integral Calculus, 39
*2-9. Graphical Analysis and Numerical Integration, 40
Summary, 43
Questions, 43
Problems, 44
General Problems, 48
3. Kinematics in Two or Three Dimensions; Vectors, 51
3-1. Vectors and Scalars, 52
3-2. Addition of Vectors–Graphical Methods, 52
3-3. Subtraction of Vectors, and Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar, 54
3-4. Adding Vectors by Components, 55
3-5. Unit Vectors, 59
3-6. Vector Kinematics, 59
3-7. Projectile Motion, 62
3-8. Solving Problems Involving Projectile Motion, 64
3-9. Relative Velocity, 71
Summary, 74
Questions, 75
Problems, 75
General Problems, 80
4. Dynamics: Newton’s Laws of Motion, 83
4-1. Force, 84
4-2. Newton’s First Law of Motion, 84
4-3. Mass, 86
4-4. Newton’s Second Law of Motion, 86
4-5. Newton’s Third Law of Motion, 89
4-6. Weight—the Force of Gravity; the Normal Force, 92
4-7. Solving Problems with Newton’s Laws: Free-Body Diagrams, 95
4-8. Problem Solving—A General Approach, 102
Summary, 102
Questions, 103
Problems, 104
General Problems, 109
5. Using Newton’s Laws: Friction, Circular Motion, Drag Forces, 112
5-1. Applications of Newton’s Laws Involving Friction, 113
5-2. Uniform Circular Motion—Kinematics, 119
5-3. Dynamics of Uniform Circular Motion, 122
5-4. Highway Curves: Banked and Unbanked, 126
*5-5. Nonuniform Circular Motion, 128
*5-6. Velocity-Dependent Forces: Drag and Terminal Velocity, 129
Summary, 130
Questions, 131
Problems, 132
General Problems, 136
6. Gravitation and Newton’s Synthesis, 139
6-1. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation, 140
6-2. Vector Form of Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation, 143
6-3. Gravity Near the Earth’s Surface; Geophysical Applications, 143
6-4. Satellites and “Weightlessness”, 146
6-5. Kepler’s Laws and Newton’s Synthesis, 149
*6-6. Gravitational Field, 154
6-7. Types of Forces in Nature, 155
*6-8. Principle of Equivalence; Curvature of Space; Black Holes, 155
Summary, 157
Questions, 157
Problems, 158
General Problems, 160
7. Work and Energy, 163
7-1. Work Done by a Constant Force, 164
7-2. Scalar Product of Two Vectors, 167
7-3. Work Done by a Varying Force, 168
7-4. Kinetic Energy and the Work-Energy Principle, 172
Summary, 176
Questions, 177
Problems, 177
General Problems, 180
8. Conservation of Energy, 183
8-1. Conservative and Nonconservative Forces, 184
8-2. Potential Energy, 186
8-3. Mechanical Energy and Its Conservation, 189
8-4. Problem Solving Using Conservation of Mechanical Energy, 190
8-5. The Law of Conservation of Energy, 196
8-6. Energy Conservation with Dissipative Forces: Solving Problems, 197
8-7. Gravitational Potential Energy and Escape Velocity, 199
8-8. Power, 201
*8-9. Potential Energy Diagrams; Stable and Unstable Equilibrium, 204
Summary, 205
Questions, 205
Problems, 207
General Problems, 211
9. Linear Momentum, 214
9-1. Momentum and Its Relation to Force, 215
9-2. Conservation of Momentum, 217
9-3. Collisions and Impulse, 220
9-4. Conservation of Energy and Momentum in Collisions, 222
9-5. Elastic Collisions in One Dimension, 222
9-6. Inelastic Collisions, 225
9-7. Collisions in Two or Three Dimensions, 227
9-8. Center of Mass (CM), 230
9-9. Center of Mass and Translational Motion, 234
*9-10. Systems of Variable Mass; Rocket Propulsion, 236
Summary, 239
Questions, 239
Problems, 240
General Problems, 245
10. Rotational Motion, 248
10-1. Angular Quantities, 249
10-2. Vector Nature of Angular Quantities, 254
10-3. Constant Angular Acceleration, 255
10-4. Torque, 256
10-5. Rotational Dynamics; Torque and Rotational Inertia, 258
10-6. Solving Problems in Rotational Dynamics, 260
10-7. Determining Moments of Inertia, 263
10-8. Rotational Kinetic Energy, 265
10-9. Rotational Plus Translational Motion; Rolling, 267
*10-10. Why Does a Rolling Sphere Slow Down?, 273
Summary, 274
Questions, 275
Problems, 276
General Problems, 281
11. Angular Momentum; General Rotation, 284
11-1. Angular Momentum—Objects Rotating About a Fixed Axis, 285
11-2. Vector Cross Product; Torque as a Vector, 289
11-3. Angular Momentum of a Particle, 291
11-4. Angular Momentum and Torque for a System of Particles; General Motion, 292
11-5. Angular Momentum and Torque for a Rigid Object, 294
11-6. Conservation of Angular Momentum, 297
*11-7. The Spinning Top and Gyroscope, 299
*11-8. Rotating Frames of Reference; Inertial Forces, 300
*11-9. The Coriolis Effect, 301
Summary, 302
Questions, 303
Problems, 303
General Problems, 308
12. Static Equilibrium; Elasticity and Fracture, 311
12-1. The Conditions for Equilibrium, 312
12-2. Solving Statics Problems, 313
12-3. Stability and Balance, 317
12-4. Elasticity; Stress and Strain, 318
12-5. Fracture, 322
*12-6. Trusses and Bridges, 324
*12-7. Arches and Domes, 327
Summary, 329
Questions, 329
Problems, 330
General Problems, 334
13. Fluids, 339
13-1. Phases of Matter, 340
13-2. Density and Specific Gravity, 340
13-3. Pressure in Fluids, 341
13-4. Atmospheric Pressure and Gauge Pressure, 345
13-5. Pascal’s Principle, 346
13-6. Measurement of Pressure; Gauges and the Barometer, 346
13-7. Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle, 348
13-8. Fluids in Motion; Flow Rate and the Equation of Continuity, 352
13-9. Bernoulli’s Equation, 354
13-10. Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle: Torricelli, Airplanes, Baseballs, TIA, 356
*13-11. Viscosity, 358
*13-12. Flow in Tubes: Poiseuille’s Equation, Blood Flow, 358
*13-13. Surface Tension and Capillarity, 359
*13-14. Pumps, and the Heart, 361
Summary, 361
Questions, 362
Problems, 363
General Problems, 367
14. Oscillations, 369
14-1. Oscillations of a Spring, 370
14-2. Simple Harmonic Motion, 372
14-3. Energy in the Simple Harmonic Oscillator, 377
14-4. Simple Harmonic Motion Related to Uniform Circular Motion, 379
14-5. The Simple Pendulum, 379
*14-6. The Physical Pendulum and the Torsion Pendulum, 381
14-7. Damped Harmonic Motion, 382
14-8. Forced Oscillations; Resonance, 385
Summary, 387
Questions, 388
Problems, 388
General Problems, 392
15. Wave Motion, 395
15-1. Characteristics of Wave Motion, 396
15-2. Types of Waves: Transverse and Longitudinal, 398
15-3. Energy Transported by Waves, 402
15-4. Mathematical Representation of a Traveling Wave, 404
*15-5. The Wave Equation, 406
15-6. The Principle of Superposition, 408
15-7. Reflection and Transmission, 409
15-8. Interference, 410
15-9. Standing Waves; Resonance, 412
*15-10. Refraction, 415
*15-11. Diffraction, 416
Summary, 417
Questions, 417
Problems, 418
General Problems, 422
16. Sound, 424
16-1. Characteristics of Sound, 425
16-2. Mathematical Representation of Longitudinal Waves, 426
16-3. Intensity of Sound: Decibels, 427
16-4. Sources of Sound: Vibrating Strings and Air Columns, 431
*16-5. Quality of Sound, and Noise; Superposition, 436
16-6. Interference of Sound Waves; Beats, 437
16-7. Doppler Effect, 439
*16-8. Shock Waves and the Sonic Boom, 443
*16-9. Applications: Sonar, Ultrasound, and Medical Imaging, 444
Summary, 446
Questions, 447
Problems, 448
General Problems, 451
17. Temperature, Thermal Expansion, and the Ideal Gas Law, 454
17-1. Atomic Theory of Matter, 455
17-2. Temperature and Thermometers, 456
17-3. Thermal Equilibrium and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics, 459
17-4. Thermal Expansion, 459
*17-5. Thermal Stresses, 463
17-6. The Gas Laws and Absolute Temperature, 463
17-7. The Ideal Gas Law, 465
17-8. Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law, 466
17-9. Ideal Gas Law in Terms of Molecules: Avogadro’s Number, 468
*17-10. Ideal Gas Temperature Scale—a Standard, 469
Summary, 470
Questions, 471
Problems, 471
General Problems, 474
18. Kinetic Theory of Gases, 476
18-1. The Ideal Gas Law and the Molecular Interpretation of Temperature, 476
18-2. Distribution of Molecular Speeds, 480
18-3. Real Gases and Changes of Phase, 482
18-4. Vapor Pressure and Humidity, 484
*18-5. Van der Waals Equation of State, 486
*18-6. Mean Free Path, 487
*18-7. Diffusion, 489
Summary, 490
Questions, 491
Problems, 492
General Problems, 494
19. Heat and the First Law of Thermodynamics, 496
19-1. Heat as Energy Transfer, 497
19-2. Internal Energy, 498
19-3. Specific Heat, 499
19-4. Calorimetry—Solving Problems, 500
19-5. Latent Heat, 502
19-6. The First Law of Thermodynamics, 505
19-7. The First Law of Thermodynamics Applied; Calculating the Work, 507
19-8. Molar Specific Heats for Gases, and the Equipartition of Energy, 511
19-9. Adiabatic Expansion of a Gas, 514
19-10. Heat Transfer: Conduction, Convection, Radiation, 515
Summary, 520
Questions, 521
Problems, 522
General Problems, 526
20. Second Law of Thermodynamics, 528
20-1. The Second Law of Thermodynamics—Introduction, 529
20-2. Heat Engines, 530
20-3. Reversible and Irreversible Processes; the Carnot Engine, 533
20-4. Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat Pumps, 536
20-5. Entropy, 539
20-6. Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics, 541
20-7. Order to Disorder, 544
20-8. Unavailability of Energy; Heat Death, 545
*20-9. Statistical Interpretation of Entropy and the Second Law, 546
*20-10. Thermodynamic Temperature; Third Law of Thermodynamics, 548
*20-11. Thermal Pollution, Global Warming, and Energy Resources, 549
Summary, 551
Questions, 552
Problems, 552
General Problems, 556
Volume 2, 559
21. Electric Charge and Electric Field, 559
21-1. Static Electricity; Electric Charge and Its Conservation, 560
21-2. Electric Charge in the Atom, 561
21-3. Insulators and Conductors, 561
21-4. Induced Charge; the Electroscope, 562
21-5. Coulomb’s Law, 563
21-6. The Electric Field, 568
21-7. Electric Field Calculations for Continuous Charge Distributions, 572
21-8. Field Lines, 575
21-9. Electric Fields and Conductors, 577
21-10. Motion of a Charged Particle in an Electric Field, 578
21-11. Electric Dipoles, 579
*21-12. Electric Forces in Molecular Biology; DNA, 581
*21-13. Photocopy Machines and Computer Printers Use Electrostatics, 582
Summary, 584
Questions, 584
Problems, 585
General Problems, 589
22. Gauss’s Law, 591
22-1. Electric Flux, 592
22-2. Gauss’s Law, 593
22-3. Applications of Gauss’s Law, 595
*22-4. Experimental Basis of Gauss’s and Coulomb’s Laws, 600
Summary, 601
Questions, 601
Problems, 601
General Problems, 605
23. Electric Potential, 607
23-1. Electric Potential Energy and Potential Difference, 607
23-2. Relation between Electric Potential and Electric Field, 610
23-3. Electric Potential Due to Point Charges, 612
23-4. Potential Due to Any Charge Distribution, 614
23-5. Equipotential Surfaces, 616
23-6. Electric Dipole Potential, 617
23-7. E Determined from V, 617
23-8. Electrostatic Potential Energy; the Electron Volt, 619
*23-9. Cathode Ray Tube: TV and Computer Monitors, Oscilloscope, 620
Summary, 622
Questions, 622
Problems, 623
General Problems, 626
24. Capacitance, Dielectrics, Electric Energy Storage, 628
24-1. Capacitors, 628
24-2. Determination of Capacitance, 630
24-3. Capacitors in Series and Parallel, 633
24-4. Electric Energy Storage, 636
24-5. Dielectrics, 638
*24-6. Molecular Description of Dielectrics, 640
Summary, 643
Questions, 643
Problems, 644
General Problems, 648
25. Electric Currents and Resistance, 651
25-1. The Electric Battery, 652
25-2. Electric Current, 654
25-3. Ohm’s Law: Resistance and Resistors, 655
25-4. Resistivity, 658
25-5. Electric Power, 660
25-6. Power in Household Circuits, 662
25-7. Alternating Current, 664
25-8. Microscopic View of Electric Current: Current Density and Drift Velocity, 666
*25-9. Superconductivity, 668
*25-10. Electrical Conduction in the Nervous System, 669
Summary, 671
Questions, 671
Problems, 672
General Problems, 675
26. DC Circuits, 677
26-1. EMF and Terminal Voltage, 678
26-2. Resistors in Series and in Parallel, 679
26-3. Kirchhoff’s Rules, 683
26-4. Series and Parallel EMFs; Battery Charging, 686
26-5. Circuits Containing Resistor and Capacitor (RC Circuits), 687
26-6. Electric Hazards, 692
*26-7. Ammeters and Voltmeters, 695
Summary, 698
Questions, 698
Problems, 699
General Problems, 704
27. Magnetism, 707
27-1. Magnets and Magnetic Fields, 707
27-2. Electric Currents Produce Magnetic Fields, 710
27-3. Force on an Electric Current in a Magnetic Field; Definition of B, 710
27-4. Force on an Electric Charge Moving in a Magnetic Field, 714
27-5. Torque on a Current Loop; Magnetic Dipole Moment, 718
*27-6. Applications: Motors, Loudspeakers, Galvanometers, 720
27-7. Discovery and Properties of the Electron, 721
27-8. The Hall Effect, 723
*27-9. Mass Spectrometer, 724
Summary, 725
Questions, 726
Problems, 727
General Problems, 730
28. Sources of Magnetic Field, 733
28-1. Magnetic Field Due to a Straight Wire, 734
28-2. Force between Two Parallel Wires, 735
28-3. Definitions of the Ampere and the Coulomb, 736
28-4. Ampère’s Law, 737
28-5. Magnetic Field of a Solenoid and a Toroid, 741
28-6. Biot-Savart Law, 743
28-7. Magnetic Materials—Ferromagnetism, 746
*28-8. Electromagnets and Solenoids—Applications, 747
*28-9. Magnetic Fields in Magnetic Materials; Hysteresis, 748
*28-10. Paramagnetism and Diamagnetism, 749
Summary, 750
Questions, 751
Problems, 751
General Problems, 755
29. Electromagnetic Induction and Faraday’s Law, 758
29-1. Induced EMF, 759
29-2. Faraday’s Law of Induction; Lenz’s Law, 760
29-3. EMF Induced in a Moving Conductor, 765
29-4. Electric Generators, 766
*29-5. Back EMF and Counter Torque; Eddy Currents, 768
29-6. Transformers and Transmission of Power, 770
29-7. A Changing Magnetic Flux Produces an Electric Field, 773
*29-8. Applications of Induction: Sound Systems, Computer Memory, Seismograph, GFCI, 775
Summary, 777
Questions, 777
Problems, 778
General Problems, 782
30. Inductance, Electromagnetic Oscillations, and AC Circuits, 785
30-1. Mutual Inductance, 786
30-2. Self-Inductance, 788
30-3. Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field, 790
30-4. LR Circuits, 790
30-5. LC Circuits and Electromagnetic Oscillations, 793
30-6. LC Oscillations with Resistance (LRC Circuit), 795
30-7. AC Circuits with AC Source, 796
30-8. LRC Series AC Circuit, 799
30-9. Resonance in AC Circuits, 802
*30-10. Impedance Matching, 802
*30-11. Three-Phase AC, 803
Summary, 804
Questions, 804
Problems, 805
General Problems, 809
31. Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Waves, 812
31-1. Changing Electric Fields Produce Magnetic Fields; Ampère’s Law and Displacement Current, 813
31-2. Gauss’s Law for Magnetism, 816
31-3. Maxwell’s Equations, 817
31-4. Production of Electromagnetic Waves, 817
31-5. Electromagnetic Waves, and Their Speed, from Maxwell’s Equations, 819
31-6. Light as an Electromagnetic Wave and the Electromagnetic Spectrum, 823
31-7. Measuring the Speed of Light, 825
31-8. Energy in EM Waves; the Poynting Vector, 826
31-9. Radiation Pressure, 828
31-10. Radio and Television; Wireless Communication, 829
Summary, 832
Questions, 832
Problems, 833
General Problems, 835
32. Light: Reflection and Refraction, 837
32-1. The Ray Model of Light, 838
32-2. Reflection; Image Formation by a Plane Mirror, 838
32-3. Formation of Images by Spherical Mirrors, 842
32-4. Index of Refraction, 850
32-5. Refraction: Snell’s Law, 850
32-6. Visible Spectrum and Dispersion, 852
32-7. Total Internal Reflection; Fiber Optics, 854
*32-8. Refraction at a Spherical Surface, 856
Summary, 858
Questions, 859
Problems, 860
General Problems, 864
33. Lenses and Optical Instruments, 866
33-1. Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing, 867
33-2. The Thin Lens Equation; Magnification, 870
33-3. Combinations of Lenses, 874
*33-4. Lensmaker’s Equation, 876
33-5. Cameras: Film and Digital, 878
33-6. The Human Eye; Corrective Lenses, 882
33-7. Magnifying Glass, 885
33-8. Telescopes, 887
*33-9. Compound Microscope, 890
*33-10. Aberrations of Lenses and Mirrors, 891
Summary, 892
Questions, 893
Problems, 894
General Problems, 897
34. The Wave Nature of Light; Interference, 900
34-1. Waves Versus Particles; Huygens’ Principle and Diffraction, 901
34-2. Huygens’ Principle and the Law of Refraction, 902
34-3. Interference—Young’s Double-Slit Experiment, 903
*34-4. Intensity in the Double-Slit Interference Pattern, 906
34-5. Interference in Thin Films, 909
*34-6. Michelson Interferometer, 914
*34-7. Luminous Intensity, 915
Summary, 915
Questions, 916
Problems, 916
General Problems, 918
35. Diffraction and Polarization, 921
35-1. Diffraction by a Single Slit or Disk, 922
*35-2. Intensity in Single-Slit Diffraction Pattern, 924
*35-3. Diffraction in the Double-Slit Experiment, 927
35-4. Limits of Resolution; Circular Apertures, 929
35-5. Resolution of Telescopes and Microscopes; the λ Limit, 931
*35-6. Resolution of the Human Eye and Useful Magnification, 932
35-7. Diffraction Grating, 933
35-8. The Spectrometer and Spectroscopy, 935
*35-9. Peak Widths and Resolving Power for a Diffraction Grating, 937
35-10. X-Rays and X-Ray Diffraction, 938
35-11. Polarization, 940
*35-12. Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD), 943
*35-13. Scattering of Light by the Atmosphere, 945
Summary, 945
Questions, 946
Problems, 946
General Problems, 949
Volume 3, 951
36. Special Theory of Relativity, 951
36-1. Galilean–Newtonian Relativity, 952
*36-2. The Michelson–Morley Experiment, 954
36-3. Postulates of the Special Theory of Relativity, 957
36-4. Simultaneity, 958
36-5. Time Dilation and the Twin Paradox, 960
36-6. Length Contraction, 964
36-7. Four-Dimensional Space–Time, 967
36-8. Galilean and Lorentz Transformations, 968
36-9. Relativistic Momentum, 971
36-10. The Ultimate Speed, 974
36-11. E = mc²; Mass and Energy, 974
*36-12. Doppler Shift for Light, 978
36-13. The Impact of Special Relativity, 980
Summary, 981
Questions, 981
Problems, 982
General Problems, 985
37. Early Quantum Theory and Models of the Atom, 987
37-1. Planck’s Quantum Hypothesis; Blackbody Radiation, 987
37-2. Photon Theory; Photoelectric Effect, 989
37-3. Photon Energy, Mass, and Momentum, 993
37-4. Compton Effect, 994
37-5. Photon Interactions; Pair Production, 996
37-6. Wave–Particle Duality; the Principle of Complementarity, 997
37-7. Wave Nature of Matter, 997
*37-8. Electron Microscopes, 1000
37-9. Early Models of the Atom, 1000
37-10. Atomic Spectra: Key to Atomic Structure, 1001
37-11. The Bohr Model, 1003
37-12. deBroglie’s Hypothesis Applied to Atoms, 1009
Summary, 1010
Questions, 1011
Problems, 1012
General Problems, 1014
38. Quantum Mechanics, 1017
38-1. Quantum Mechanics—A New Theory, 1018
38-2. The Wave Function and Its Interpretation; the Double-Slit Experiment, 1018
38-3. The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, 1020
38-4. Philosophic Implications; Probability Versus Determinism, 1024
38-5. The Schrödinger Equation in One Dimension—Time-Independent Form, 1025
*38-6. Time-Dependent Schrödinger Equation, 1027
38-7. Free Particles; Plane Waves and Wave Packets, 1028
38-8. Particle in an Infinitely Deep Square Well Potential (a Rigid Box), 1030
38-9. Finite Potential Well, 1035
38-10. Tunneling through a Barrier, 1036
Summary, 1039
Questions, 1039
Problems, 1040
General Problems, 1042
39. Quantum Mechanics of Atoms, 1044
39-1. Quantum-Mechanical View of Atoms, 1045
39-2. Hydrogen Atom: Schrödinger Equation and Quantum Numbers, 1045
39-3. Hydrogen Atom Wave Functions, 1049
39-4. Complex Atoms; the Exclusion Principle, 1052
39-5. Periodic Table of Elements, 1053
39-6. X-Ray Spectra and Atomic Number, 1054
*39-7. Magnetic Dipole Moment; Total Angular Momentum, 1057
39-8. Fluorescence and Phosphorescence, 1060
39-9. Lasers, 1061
*39-10. Holography, 1064
Summary, 1066
Questions, 1066
Problems, 1067
General Problems, 1069
40. Molecules and Solids, 1071
40-1. Bonding in Molecules, 1071
40-2. Potential-Energy Diagrams for Molecules, 1074
40-3. Weak (van der Waals) Bonds, 1077
40-4. Molecular Spectra, 1080
40-5. Bonding in Solids, 1085
40-6. Free-Electron Theory of Metals; Fermi Energy, 1086
40-7. Band Theory of Solids, 1090
40-8. Semiconductors and Doping, 1093
40-9. Semiconductor Diodes, 1094
40-10. Transistors and Integrated Circuits (Chips), 1097
Summary, 1098
Questions, 1099
Problems, 1099
General Problems, 1102
41. Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity, 1104
41-1. Structure and Properties of the Nucleus, 1105
41-2. Binding Energy and Nuclear Forces, 1108
41-3. Radioactivity, 1110
41-4. Alpha Decay, 1111
41-5. Beta Decay, 1114
41-6. Gamma Decay, 1116
41-7. Conservation of Nucleon Number and Other Conservation Laws, 1117
41-8. Half-Life and Rate of Decay, 1117
41-9. Decay Series, 1121
41-10. Radioactive Dating, 1122
41-11. Detection of Radiation, 1124
Summary, 1126
Questions, 1126
Problems, 1127
General Problems, 1129
42. Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation, 1131
42-1. Nuclear Reactions and the Transmutation of Elements, 1132
42-2. Cross Section, 1135
42-3. Nuclear Fission; Nuclear Reactors, 1136
42-4. Nuclear Fusion, 1141
42-5. Passage of Radiation Through Matter; Radiation Damage, 1146
42-6. Measurement of Radiation—Dosimetry, 1147
*42-7. Radiation Therapy, 1150
*42-8. Tracers in Research and Medicine, 1151
*42-9. Imaging by Tomography: CAT Scans and Emission Tomography, 1153
*42-10. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR); Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), 1156
Summary, 1159
Questions, 1159
Problems, 1160
General Problems, 1162
43. Elementary Particles, 1164
43-1. High-Energy Particles and Accelerators, 1165
43-2. Beginnings of Elementary Particle Physics—Particle Exchange, 1171
43-3. Particles and Antiparticles, 1174
43-4. Particle Interactions and Conservation Laws, 1175
43-5. Neutrinos—Recent Results, 1177
43-6. Particle Classification, 1178
43-7. Particle Stability and Resonances, 1180
43-8. Strange Particles? Charm? Towards a New Model, 1181
43-9. Quarks, 1182
43-10. The Standard Model: QCD and Electroweak Theory, 1184
43-11. Grand Unified Theories, 1187
43-12. Strings and Supersymmetry, 1189
Summary, 1189
Questions, 1190
Problems, 1190
General Problems, 1191
44. Astrophysics and Cosmology, 1193
44-1. Stars and Galaxies, 1194
44-2. Stellar Evolution: Nucleosynthesis, and the Birth and Death of Stars, 1197
44-3. Distance Measurements, 1203
44-4. General Relativity: Gravity and the Curvature of Space, 1205
44-5. The Expanding Universe: Redshift and Hubble’s Law, 1209
44-6. The Big Bang and the Cosmic Microwave Background, 1213
44-7. The Standard Cosmological Model: Early History of the Universe, 1216
44-8. Inflation: Explaining Flatness, Uniformity, and Structure, 1219
44-9. Dark Matter and Dark Energy, 1221
44-10. Large-Scale Structure of the Universe, 1224
44-11. Finally . . ., 1224
Summary, 1225
Questions, 1226
Problems, 1226
General Problems, 1227
Appendix A. Mathematical Formulas, A-1
Appendix B. Derivatives and Integrals, A-6
Appendix C. More on Dimensional Analysis, A-8
Appendix D. Gravitational Force Due to a Spherical Mass Distribution, A-9
Appendix E. Differential form of Maxwell’s Equations, A-12
Appendix F. Selected Isotopes, A-14
Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems, A-18
Index, A-47
Photo Credits, A-72
Endpapers, EP-1

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