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Biology: Concepts & Connections, Sixth Edition

by Neil A. Campbell; Jane B. Reece; Martha R. Taylor; Eric J. Simon; Jean L. Dickey

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Copyright, ii
About the Authors, iii
To the student: How to use this book, iv
Make the most of your study time with mybiology.com, viii
Preface, ix
New to This Edition, xi
Acknowledgments, xiv
Reviewers, xv
Supplements for the Instructor, xviii
Supplements for the Student, xx
1. Biology: Exploring Life, 1-a
Essay: Dining in the Trees, 1
Themes in the Study of Biology, 2
1.1. In life’s hierarchy of organization, new properties emerge at each level, 2
1.2. Living organisms interact with their environments, exchanging matter and energy, 3
1.3. Cells are the structural and functional units of life, 4
Evolution, the Core Theme of Biology, 4
1.4. The unity of life: All forms of life have common features, 4
1.5. The diversity of life can be arranged into three domains, 6
1.6. Evolution explains the unity and diversity of life, 8
The Process of Science, 9
1.7. Scientists use two main approaches to learn about nature, 9
1.8. With hypothesis-based science, we pose and test hypotheses, 10
Biology and Everyday Life, 12
1.9. Connection: Biology, technology, and society are connected in important ways, 12
1.10. Evolution Connection: Evolution is connected to our everyday lives, 12
Chapter Review, 13
Unit One. The Life of the Cell, 15
2. The Chemical Basis of Life, 16
Essay: Who Tends This Garden?, 17
Elements, Atoms, and Molecules, 18
2.1. Living organisms are composed of about 25 chemical elements, 18
2.2. Connection: Trace elements are common additives to food and water, 18
2.3. Elements can combine to form compounds, 19
2.4. Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons, 20
2.5. Connection: Radioactive isotopes can help or harm us, 21
2.6. Electron arrangement determines the chemical properties of an atom, 22
2.7. Ionic bonds are attractions between ions of opposite charge, 22
2.8. Covalent bonds join atoms into molecules through electron sharing, 23
2.9. Unequal electron sharing creates polar molecules, 24
2.10. Hydrogen bonds are weak bonds important in the chemistry of life, 24
Water’s Life-Supporting Properties, 25
2.11. Hydrogen bonds make liquid water cohesive, 25
2.12. Water’s hydrogen bonds moderate temperature, 25
2.13. Ice is less dense than liquid water, 26
2.14. Water is the solvent of life, 26
2.15. The chemistry of life is sensitive to acidic and basic conditions, 27
2.16. Connection: Acid precipitation and ocean acidification threaten the environment, 28
2.17. Evolution Connection: The search for extraterrestrial life centers on the search for water, 28
Chemical Reactions, 29
2.18. Chemical reactions make and break bonds, changing the composition of matter, 29
Chapter Review, 30
3. The Molecules of Cells, 32
Essay: Got Lactose?, 33
Introduction to Organic Compounds, 34
3.1. Life’s molecular diversity is based on the properties of carbon, 34
3.2. Characteristic chemical groups help determine the properties of organic compounds, 35
3.3. Cells make a huge number of large molecules from a small set of small molecules, 36
Carbohydrates, 37
3.4. Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates, 37
3.5. Cells link two single sugars to form disaccharides, 38
3.6. Connection: What is high-fructose corn syrup and is it to blame for obesity?, 38
3.7. Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar units, 39
Lipids, 40
3.8. Fats are lipids that are mostly energy-storage molecules, 40
3.9. Phospholipids and steroids are important lipids with a variety of functions, 41
3.10. Connection: Anabolic steroids pose health risks, 41
Proteins, 42
3.11. Proteins are essential to the structures and functions of life, 42
3.12. Proteins are made from amino acids linked by peptide bonds, 42
3.13. A protein’s specific shape determines its function, 43
3.14. A protein’s shape depends on four levels of structure, 44
3.15. Talking About Science: Linus Pauling contributed to our understanding of the chemistry of life, 46
Nucleic Acids, 46
3.16. Nucleic acids are information-rich polymers of nucleotides, 46
3.17. Evolution Connection: Lactose tolerance is a recent event in human evolution, 47
Chapter Review, 48
4. A Tour of the Cell, 50
Essay: Cells on the Move, 51
Introduction to the Cell, 52
4.1. Microscopes reveal the world of the cell, 52
4.2. Most cells are microscopic, 54
4.3. Prokaryotic cells are structurally simpler than eukaryotic cells, 55
4.4. Eukaryotic cells are partitioned into functional compartments, 56
4.5. The structure of membranes correlates with their functions, 58
Cell Structures Involved in Manufacturing and Breakdown, 58
4.6. The nucleus is the cell’s genetic control center, 58
4.7. Ribosomes make proteins for use in the cell and export, 59
4.8. Overview: Many cell organelles are connected through the endomembrane system, 59
4.9. The endoplasmic reticulum is a biosynthetic factory, 60
4.10. The Golgi apparatus finishes, sorts, and ships cell products, 61
4.11. Lysosomes are digestive compartments within a cell, 62
4.12. Vacuoles function in the general maintenance of the cell, 62
4.13. A review of the structures involved in manufacturing and breakdown, 63
Energy-Converting Organelles, 63
4.14. Mitochondria harvest chemical energy from food, 63
4.15. Chloroplasts convert solar energy to chemical energy, 64
4.16. Evolution Connection: Mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved by endosymbiosis, 64
Internal and External Support: The Cytoskeleton and Cell Surfaces, 65
4.17. The cell’s internal skeleton helps organize its structure and activities, 65
4.18. Cilia and flagella move when microtubules bend, 66
4.19. Connection: Problems with sperm motility may be environmental or genetic, 67
4.20. The extracellular matrix of animal cells functions in support, movement, and regulation, 67
4.21. Three types of cell junctions are found in animal tissues, 68
4.22. Cell walls enclose and support plant cells, 68
Functional Categories of Cell Structures, 69
4.23. Review: Eukaryotic cell structures can be grouped on the basis of four basic functions, 69
Chapter Review, 70
5. The Working Cell, 72
Essay: Turning on the Lights to Be Invisible, 73
Membrane Structure and Function, 74
5.1. Membranes are a fluid mosaic of phospholipids and proteins, 74
5.2. Evolution Connection: Membranes form spontaneously, a critical step in the origin of life, 75
5.3. Passive transport is diffusion across a membrane with no energy investment, 75
5.4. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a membrane, 76
5.5. Water balance between cells and their surroundings is crucial to organisms, 76
5.6. Transport proteins may facilitate diffusion across membranes, 77
5.7. Talking About Science: Peter Agre talks about aquaporins, water-channel proteins found in somecells, 78
5.8. Cells expend energy in the active transport of a solute against its concentration gradient, 78
5.9. Exocytosis and endocytosis transport large molecules across membranes, 79
Energy and the Cell, 80
5.10. Cells transform energy as they perform work, 80
5.11. Two laws govern energy transformations, 81
5.12. Chemical reactions either release or store energy, 82
5.13. ATP shuttles chemical energy and drives cellular work, 83
How Enzymes Function, 84
5.14. Enzymes speed up the cell’s chemical reactions by lowering energy barriers, 84
5.15. A specific enzyme catalyzes each cellular reaction, 84
5.16. Enzyme inhibitors block enzyme action and can regulate enzyme activity in a cell, 85
Chapter Review, 86
6. How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy, 88
Essay: How Is a Marathoner Different from a Sprinter?, 89
Introduction to Cellular Respiration, 90
6.1. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration provide energy for life, 90
6.2. Breathing supplies oxygen to our cells for use in cellular respiration and removes carbon dioxide, 90
6.3. Cellular respiration banks energy in ATP molecules, 91
6.4. Connection: The human body uses energy from ATP for all its activities, 91
6.5. Cells tap energy from electrons “falling” from organic fuels to oxygen, 92
Stages of Cellular Respiration and Fermentation, 93
6.6. Overview: Cellular respiration occurs in three main stages, 93
6.7. Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate, 94
6.8. Pyruvate is chemically groomed for the citric acid cycle, 96
6.9. The citric acid cycle completes the oxidation of organic molecules, generating many NADH and FADH₂ molecules, 96
6.10. Most ATP production occurs by oxidative phosphorylation, 98
6.11. Connection: Certain poisons interrupt critical events in cellular respiration, 99
6.12. Review: Each molecule of glucose yields many molecules of ATP, 100
6.13. Fermentation enables cells to produce ATP without oxygen, 101
6.14. Evolution Connection: Glycolysis evolved early in the history of life on Earth, 102
Interconnections Between Molecular Breakdown and Synthesis, 102
6.15. Cells use many kinds of organic molecules as fuel for cellular respiration, 102
6.16. Food molecules provide raw materials for biosynthesis, 103
Chapter Review, 104
7. Photosynthesis: Using Light to Make Food, 106
Essay: Plant Power, 107
An Overview of Photosynthesis, 108
7.1. Autotrophs are the producers of the biosphere, 108
7.2. Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts in plant cells, 109
7.3. Plants produce O₂ gas by splitting water, 110
7.4. Photosynthesis is a redox process, as is cellular respiration, 110
7.5. Overview: The two stages of photosynthesis are linked by ATP and NADPH, 111
The Light Reactions: Converting Solar Energy to Chemical Energy, 112
7.6. Visible radiation drives the light reactions, 112
7.7. Photosystems capture solar power, 113
7.8. Two photosystems connected by an electron transport chain generate ATP and NADPH, 114
7.9. Chemiosmosis powers ATP synthesis in the light reactions, 115
The Calvin Cycle: Converting CO₂ to Sugars, 116
7.10. ATP and NADPH power sugar synthesis in the Calvin cycle, 116
Photosynthesis Reviewed and Extended, 117
7.11. Review: Photosynthesis uses light energy, CO₂, and H₂O to make food molecules, 117
7.12. Evolution Connection: Adaptations that save water in hot, dry climates evolved in C₄ and CAM plants, 118
Photosynthesis, Solar Radiation, and Earth’s Atmosphere, 119
7.13. Connection: Photosynthesis moderates global warming, 119
7.14. Talking About Science: Mario Molina talks about Earth’s protective ozone layer, 120
Chapter Review, 121
Unit Two. Cellular Reproduction and Genetics, 123
8. The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance, 124
Essay: Rain Forest Rescue, 125
Connections Between Cell Division and Reproduction, 126
8.1. Like begets like, more or less, 126
8.2. Cells arise only from preexisting cells, 127
8.3. Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission, 127
The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle and Mitosis, 128
8.4. The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division, 128
8.5. The cell cycle multiplies cells, 129
8.6. Cell division is a continuum of dynamic changes, 130
8.7. Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells, 132
8.8. Anchorage, cell density, and chemical growth factors affect cell division, 133
8.9. Growth factors signal the cell cycle control system, 134
8.10. Connection: Growing out of control, cancer cells produce malignant tumors, 135
8.11. Review: Mitosis provides for growth, cell replacement, and asexual reproduction, 136
Meiosis and Crossing Over, 136
8.12. Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs, 136
8.13. Gametes have a single set of chromosomes, 137
8.14. Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid, 138
8.15. Mitosis and meiosis have important similarities and differences, 140
8.16. Independent orientation of chromosomes in meiosis and random fertilization lead to varied offspring, 141
8.17. Homologous chromosomes can carry different versions of genes, 142
8.18. Crossing over further increases genetic variability, 142
Alterations of Chromosome Number and Structure, 144
8.19. A karyotype is a photographic inventory of an individual’s chromosomes, 144
8.20. Connection: An extra copy of chromosome 21 causes Down syndrome, 145
8.21. Accidents during meiosis can alter chromosome number, 146
8.22. Connection: Abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes do not usually affect survival, 146
8.23. Evolution Connection: New species can arise from errors in cell division, 147
8.24. Connection: Alterations of chromosome structure can cause birth defects and cancer, 148
Chapter Review, 149
9. Patterns of Inheritance, 152
Essay: Barking Up the Genetic Tree, 153
Mendel’s Laws, 154
9.1. The science of genetics has ancient roots, 154
9.2. Experimental genetics began in an abbey garden, 154
9.3. Mendel’s law of segregation describes the inheritance of a single character, 156
9.4. Homologous chromosomes bear the alleles for each character, 157
9.5. The law of independent assortment is revealed by tracking two characters at once, 158
9.6. Geneticists use the testcross to determine unknown genotypes, 159
9.7. Mendel’s laws reflect the rules of probability, 160
9.8. Connection: Genetic traits in humans can be tracked through family pedigrees, 161
9.9. Connection: Many inherited disorders in humans are controlled by a single gene, 162
9.10. Connection: New technologies can provide insight into one’s genetic legacy, 164
Variations on Mendel’s Laws, 166
9.11. Incomplete dominance results in intermediate phenotypes, 166
9.12. Many genes have more than two alleles in the population, 167
9.13. A single gene may affect many phenotypic characters, 168
9.14. A single character may be influenced by many genes, 169
9.15. The environment affects many characters, 170
The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance, 170
9.16. Chromosome behavior accounts for Mendel’s laws, 170
9.17. Genes on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together, 172
9.18. Crossing over produces new combinations of alleles, 172
9.19. Geneticists use crossover data to map genes, 174
Sex Chromosomes and Sex-Linked Genes, 174
9.20. Chromosomes determine sex in many species, 174
9.21. Sex-linked genes exhibit a unique pattern of inheritance, 176
9.22. Connection: Sex-linked disorders affect mostly males, 177
9.23. Evolution Connection: The Y Chromosome provides clues about human male evolution, 177
Chapter Review, 178
10. Molecular Biology of the Gene, 180
Essay: Sabotage Inside Our Cells, 181
The Structure of the Genetic Material, 182
10.1. Experiments showed that DNA is the genetic material, 182
10.2. DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides, 184
10.3. DNA is a double-stranded helix, 186
DNA Replication, 188
10.4. DNA replication depends on specific base pairing, 188
10.5. DNA replication proceeds in two directions at many sites simultaneously, 189
The Flow of Genetic Information from DNA to RNA to Protein, 190
10.6. The DNA genotype is expressed as proteins, which provide the molecular basis for phenotypic traits, 190
10.7. Genetic information written in codons is translated into amino acid sequences, 191
10.8. The genetic code is the Rosetta stone of life, 192
10.9. Transcription produces genetic messages in the form of RNA, 193
10.10. Eukaryotic RNA is processed before leaving the nucleus, 194
10.11. Transfer RNA molecules serve as interpreters during translation, 194
10.12. Ribosomes build polypeptides, 196
10.13. An initiation codon marks the start of an mRNA message, 196
10.14. Elongation adds amino acids to the polypeptide chain until a stop codon terminates translation, 197
10.15. Review: The flow of genetic information in the cell is DNA → RNA → protein, 198
10.16. Mutations can change the meaning of genes, 199
Microbial Genetics, 200
10.17. Viral DNA may become part of the host chromosome, 200
10.18. Connection: Many viruses cause disease in animals and plants, 201
10.19. Evolution Connection: Emerging viruses threaten human health, 202
10.20. The AIDS virus makes DNA on an RNA template, 203
10.21. Viroids and prions are formidable pathogens in plants and animals, 203
10.22. Bacteria can transfer DNA in three ways, 204
10.23. Bacterial plasmids can serve as carriers for gene transfer, 205
Chapter Review, 206
11. How Genes Are Controlled, 208
Essay: Cloning to the Rescue?, 209
Control of Gene Expression, 210
11.1. Proteins interacting with DNA turn prokaryotic genes on or off in response to environmental changes, 210
11.2. Differentiation results from the expression of different combinations of genes, 212
11.3. DNA packing in eukaryotic chromosomes helps regulate gene expression, 212
11.4. In female mammals, one X chromosome is inactive in each somatic cell, 213
11.5. Complex assemblies of proteins control eukaryotic transcription, 214
11.6. Eukaryotic RNA may be spliced in more than one way, 214
11.7. Small RNAs play multiple roles in controlling gene expression, 215
11.8. Translation and later stages of gene expression are also subject to regulation, 216
11.9. Review: Multiple mechanisms regulate gene expression in eukaryotes, 217
11.10. Cascades of gene expression direct the development of an animal, 218
11.11. Connection: DNA microarrays test for the transcription of many genes at once, 219
11.12. Signal transduction pathways convert messages received at the cell surface to responses within the cell, 220
11.13. Evolution Connection: Cell-signaling systems appeared early in the evolution of life, 220
Cloning of Plants and Animals, 221
11.14. Plant cloning shows that differentiated cells may retain all of their genetic potential, 221
11.15. Nuclear transplantation can be used to clone animals, 222
11.16. Connection: Reproductive cloning has valuable applications, but human reproductive cloning raises ethical issues, 222
11.17. Connection: Therapeutic cloning can produce stem cells with great medical potential, 223
The Genetic Basis of Cancer, 224
11.18. Cancer results from mutations in genes that control cell division, 224
11.19. Multiple genetic changes underlie the development of cancer, 225
11.20. Faulty proteins can interfere with normal signal transduction pathways, 226
11.21. Connection: Lifestyle choices can reduce the risk of cancer, 227
Chapter Review, 228
12. DNA Technology and Genomics, 230
Essay: DNA and Crime Scene Investigations, 231
Gene Cloning, 232
12.1. Genes can be cloned in recombinant plasmids, 232
12.2. Enzymes are used to “cut and paste” DNA, 234
12.3. Cloned genes can be stored in genomic libraries, 235
12.4. Reverse transcriptase helps make genes for cloning, 235
12.5. Nucleic acid probes identify clones carrying specific genes, 236
Genetically Modified Organisms, 236
12.6. Recombinant cells and organisms can mass-produce gene products, 236
12.7. Connection: DNA technology has changed the pharmaceutical industry and medicine, 238
12.8. Connection: Genetically modified organisms are transforming agriculture, 239
12.9. Genetically modified organisms raise concerns about human and environmental health, 240
12.10. Connection: Gene therapy may someday help treat a variety of diseases, 241
DNA Profiling, 242
12.11. The analysis of genetic markers can produce a DNA profile, 242
12.12. The PCR method is used to amplify DNA sequences, 242
12.13. Gel electrophoresis sorts DNA molecules by size, 243
12.14. STR analysis is commonly used for DNA profiling, 244
12.15. Connection: DNA profiling has provided evidence in many forensic investigations, 245
12.16. RFLPs can be used to detect differences in DNA sequences, 246
Genomics, 247
12.17. Genomics is the scientific study of whole genomes, 247
12.18. Connection: The Human Genome Project revealed that most of the human genome does not consist of genes, 248
12.19. The whole-genome shotgun method of sequencing a genome can provide a wealth of data quickly, 249
12.20. Proteomics is the scientific study of the full set of proteins encoded by a genome, 249
12.21. Evolution Connection: Genomes hold clues to the evolutionary divergence of humans and chimps, 250
Chapter Review, 250
Unit Three. Concepts of Evolution, 253
13. How Populations Evolve, 254
Essay: Clown, Fool, or Simply Well Adapted?, 255
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, 256
13.1. A sea voyage helped Darwin frame his theory of evolution, 256
13.2. Darwin proposed natural selection as the mechanism of evolution, 258
13.3. Scientists can observe natural selection in action, 259
13.4. The study of fossils provides strong evidence for evolution, 260
13.5. A mass of other evidence reinforces the evolutionary view of life, 262
13.6. Homologies indicate patterns of descent that can be shown on an evolutionary tree, 263
The Evolution of Populations, 264
13.7. Populations are the units of evolution, 264
13.8. Mutation and sexual reproduction produce genetic variation, making evolution possible, 264
13.9. The Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to test whether a population is evolving, 266
13.10. Connection: The Hardy-Weinberg equation is useful in public health science, 267
Mechanisms of Microevolution, 268
13.11. Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter allele frequencies in a population, 268
13.12. Natural selection is the only mechanism that consistently leads to adaptive evolution, 269
13.13. Natural selection can alter variation in a population in three ways, 270
13.14. Sexual selection may lead to phenotypic differences between males and females, 271
13.15. Evolution Connection: The evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria is a serious public health concern, 272
13.16. Diploidy and balancing selection preserve genetic variation, 272
13.17. Natural selection cannot fashion perfect organisms, 273
Chapter Review, 274
14. The Origin of Species, 276
Essay: The Rise and Fall of Cichlids, 276
14.1. The origin of species is the source of biological diversity, 278
Concepts of Species, 278
14.2. There are several ways to define a species, 278
14.3. Reproductive barriers keep species separate, 280
Mechanisms of Speciation, 282
14.4. In allopatric speciation, geographic isolation leads to speciation, 282
14.5. In sympatric speciation, speciation takes place without geographic isolation, 283
14.6. Evolution Connection: Most plant species trace their origin to polyploid speciation, 284
14.7. Reproductive barriers may evolve as populations diverge, 285
14.8. Hybrid zones provide opportunities to study reproductive isolation, 286
14.9. Talking About Science: Peter and Rosemary Grant study the evolution of Darwin’s finches, 287
14.10. Adaptive radiation may occur when new opportunities arise, 288
14.11. Speciation can occur rapidly or slowly, 289
Chapter Review, 290
15. Tracing Evolutionary History, 292
Essay: On the Wings of Eagles, Bats, and Pterosaurs, 293
Early Earth and the Origin of Life, 294
15.1. Conditions on early Earth made the origin of life possible, 294
15.2. Talking About Science Stanley Miller’s experiments showed that the abiotic synthesis of organic molecules is possible, 295
15.3. The formation of polymers, membranes, and self-replicating molecules represent stages in the origin of the first cells, 296
Major Events in the History of Life, 297
15.4. The origins of single-celled and multicelled organisms and the colonization of land are key events in life’s history, 297
15.5. The actual ages of rocks and fossils mark geologic time, 298
15.6. The fossil record documents the history of life, 298
Mechanisms of Macroevolution, 300
15.7. Continental drift has played a major role in macroevolution, 300
15.8. Connection: The effects of continental drift may imperil human life, 302
15.9. Mass extinctions destroy large numbers of species, 302
15.10. Evolution Connection: Adaptive radiations have increased the diversity of life, 304
15.11. Genes that control development play a major role in evolution, 304
15.12. Evolutionary novelties may arise in several ways, 306
15.13. Evolutionary trends do not mean that evolution is goal directed, 307
Phylogeny and the Tree of Life, 308
15.14. Phylogenies are based on homologies in fossils and living organisms, 308
15.15. Systematics connects classification with evolutionary history, 308
15.16. Shared characters are used to construct phylogenetic trees, 310
15.17. An organism’s evolutionary history is documented in its genome, 312
15.18. Molecular clocks help track evolutionary time, 313
15.19. Constructing the tree of life is a work in progress, 314
Chapter Review, 315
Unit Four. The Evolution of Biological Diversity, 317
16. The Origin and Evolution of Microbial Life: Prokaryotes and Protists, 318
Essay: How Ancient Bacteria Changed the World, 318
Prokaryotes, 320
16.1. Prokaryotes are diverse and widespread, 320
16.2. Bacteria and archaea are the two main branches of prokaryotic evolution, 320
16.3. Prokaryotes come in a variety of shapes, 321
16.4. Various structural features contribute to the success of prokaryotes, 322
16.5. Prokaryotes obtain nourishment in a variety of ways, 324
16.6. Archaea thrive in extreme environments—and in other habitats, 325
16.7. Bacteria include a diverse assemblage of prokaryotes, 326
16.8. Connection: Some bacteria cause disease, 327
16.9. Connection: Bacteria can be used as biological weapons, 328
16.10. Connection: Prokaryotes help recycle chemicals and clean up the environment, 329
Protists, 330
16.11. Protists are an extremely diverse assortment of eukaryotes, 330
16.12. Evolution Connection: Secondary endosymbiosis is the key to protist diversity, 331
16.13. A tentative phylogeny of eukaryotes includes multiple clades of protists, 332
16.14. Diplomonads and parabasalids have modified mitochondria, 332
16.15. Euglenozoans have flagella with a unique internal structure, 333
16.16. Alveolates have sacs beneath the plasma membrane, 333
16.17. Stramenopiles have “hairy” and smooth flagella, 334
16.18. Amoebozoans have lobe-shaped pseudopodia, 334
16.19. Foraminiferans and radiolarians have threadlike pseudopodia, 335
16.20. Red algae and green algae are the closest relatives of land plants, 336
16.21. Evolution Connection: Multicellularity evolved several times in eukaryotes, 337
Chapter Review, 338
17. Plants, Fungi, and the Colonization of Land, 340
Essay: Plants and Fungi—A Beneficial Partnership, 341
Plant Evolution and Diversity, 342
17.1. Plants have adaptations for life on land, 342
17.2. Plant diversity reflects the evolutionary history of the plant kingdom, 344
Alternation of Generations and Plant Life Cycles, 346
17.3. Haploid and diploid generations alternate in plant life cycles, 346
17.4. Mosses have a dominant gametophyte, 346
17.5. Ferns, like most plants, have a dominant sporophyte, 347
17.6. Seedless vascular plants dominated vast “coal forests”, 348
17.7. A pine tree is a sporophyte with gametophytes in its cones, 348
17.8. The flower is the centerpiece of angiosperm reproduction, 350
17.9. The angiosperm plant is a sporophyte with gametophytes in its flowers, 350
17.10. The structure of a fruit reflects its function in seed dispersal, 352
17.11. Connection: Angiosperms sustain us—and add spice to our diets, 352
17.12. Evolution Connection: Pollination by animals has influenced angiosperm evolution, 353
17.13. Connection: Plant diversity is an irreplaceable resource, 354
Fungi, 355
17.14. Fungi absorb food after digesting it outside their bodies, 355
17.15. Fungi produce spores in both asexual and sexual life cycles, 356
17.16. Fungi are classified into five groups, 356
17.17. Fungal groups differ in their life cycles and reproductive structures, 358
17.18. Connection: Parasitic fungi harm plants and animals, 359
17.19. Lichens consist of fungi living in close association with photosynthetic organisms, 360
17.20. Some fungi have mutually beneficial relationships with ants, 360
17.21. Connection: Fungi have enormous ecological benefits and practical uses, 361
Chapter Review, 362
18. The Evolution of Invertebrate Diversity, 364
Essay: Fatal or Fake?, 365
Animal Evolution and Diversity, 366
18.1. What is an animal?, 366
18.2. The ancestor of animals was probably a colonial, flagellated protist, 367
18.3. Animals can be characterized by basic features of their “body plan”, 368
18.4. The body plans of animals can be used to build phylogenetic trees, 369
Invertebrate Diversity, 370
18.5. Sponges have a relatively simple, porous body, 370
18.6. Cnidarians are radial animals with tentacles and stinging cells, 371
18.7. Flatworms are the simplest bilateral animals, 372
18.8. Nematodes have a pseudocoelom and a complete digestive tract, 373
18.9. Diverse molluscs are variations on a common body plan, 374
18.10. Annelids are segmented worms, 376
18.11. Arthropods are segmented animals with jointed appendages and an exoskeleton, 378
18.12. Evolution Connection: Insects are the most successful group of animals, 380
18.13. Echinoderms have spiny skin, an endoskeleton, and a water vascular system for movement, 382
18.14. Our own phylum, Chordata, is distinguished by four features, 383
Animal Phylogeny and Diversity Revisited, 384
18.15. An animal phylogenetic tree is a work in progress, 384
18.16. Talking About Science: Sean Carroll talks about the evolution of animal diversity, 385
Chapter Review, 386
19. The Evolution of Vertebrate Diversity, 388
Essay: What Am I?, 388
Vertebrate Evolution and Diversity, 390
19.1. Derived characters define the major clades of chordates, 390
19.2. Hagfishes and lampreys lack hinged jaws, 391
19.3. Jawed vertebrates with gills and paired fins include sharks, ray-finned fishes, and lobe-finned fishes, 392
19.4. Evolution Connection: New fossil discoveries are filling in the gaps of tetrapod evolution, 394
19.5. Amphibians are tetrapods—vertebrates with two pairs of limbs, 396
19.6. Reptiles are amniotes—tetrapods with a terrestrially adapted egg, 397
19.7. Birds are feathered reptiles with adaptations for flight, 398
19.8. Mammals are amniotes that have hair and produce milk, 399
Primate Diversity, 400
19.9. The human story begins with our primate heritage, 400
19.10. Hominoids include humans and four other groups of apes, 402
Hominid Evolution, 403
19.11. The hominid branch of the primate tree is only a few million years old, 403
19.12. Upright posture evolved long before an enlarged brain, 404
19.13. Larger brains mark the evolution of Homo, 404
19.14. Neanderthals and our human ancestors diverged half a million years ago, 405
19.15. From origins in Africa, Homo sapiens spread around the world, 406
19.16. A genetic difference helped humans start speaking, 407
19.17. Evolution Connection: Human skin color reflects adaptations to varying amounts of sunlight, 407
19.18. Connection: Humans threaten animal diversity by introducing non-native species, 408
Chapter Review, 409
Unit Five. Animals: Form and Function, 411
20. Unifying Concepts of Animal Structure and Function, 412
Essay: Climbing the Walls, 413
The Hierarchy of Structural Organization in an Animal, 414
20.1. Structure fits function at all levels of organization in the animal body, 414
20.2. Evolution Connection: An animal’s form reflects natural selection, 415
20.3. Tissues are groups of cells with a common structure and function, 415
20.4. Epithelial tissue covers the body and lines its organs and cavities, 416
20.5. Connective tissue binds and supports other tissues, 417
20.6. Muscle tissue functions in movement, 418
20.7. Nervous tissue forms a communication network, 418
20.8. Organs are made up of tissues, 419
20.9. Connection: Bioengineers are learning to produce tissues and organs for transplants, 419
20.10. Organ systems work together to perform life’s functions, 420
20.11. Connection: New imaging technology reveals the inner body, 422
20.12. The integumentary system protects the body, 423
Exchanges with the External Environment, 424
20.13. Structural adaptations enhance exchange between animals and their environment, 424
20.14. Animals regulate their internal environment, 425
20.15. Homeostasis depends on negative feedback, 426
Chapter Review, 426
21. Nutrition and Digestion, 428
Essay: Getting Their Fill of Krill, 429
Obtaining and Processing Food, 430
21.1. Animals ingest their food in a variety of ways, 430
21.2. Overview: Food processing occurs in four stages, 431
21.3. Digestion occurs in specialized compartments, 432
Human Digestive System, 433
21.4. The human digestive system consists of an alimentary canal and accessory glands, 433
21.5. Digestion begins in the oral cavity, 434
21.6. After swallowing, peristalsis moves food through the esophagus to the stomach, 434
21.7. Connection: The Heimlich maneuver can save lives, 435
21.8. The stomach stores food and breaks it down with acid and enzymes, 436
21.9. Connection: Digestive ailments include acid reflux and gastric ulcers, 437
21.10. The small intestine is the major organ of chemical digestion and nutrient absorption, 438
21.11. One of the liver’s many functions is processing nutrient-laden blood from the intestines, 440
21.12. The large intestine reclaims water and compacts the feces, 440
21.13. Evolution Connection: Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems often relate to diet, 441
Nutrition, 442
21.14. Overview: A healthy diet satisfies three needs, 442
21.15. Chemical energy powers the body, 442
21.16. An animal’s diet must supply essential nutrients, 443
21.17. Connection: Vegetarians must be sure to obtain all eight essential amino acids, 443
21.18. A healthy diet includes 13 vitamins and many essential minerals, 444
21.19. Connection: Do you need to take vitamin and mineral supplements?, 446
21.20. Connection: What do food labels tell us?, 446
21.21. Evolution Connection: The human health problem of obesity may reflect our evolutionary past, 447
21.22. Connection: What are the health risks and benefits of weight loss plans?, 448
21.23. Connection: Diet can influence cardiovascular disease and cancer, 449
Chapter Review, 450
22. Gas Exchange, 452
Essay: Surviving in Thin Air, 453
Mechanisms of Gas Exchange, 454
22.1. Overview: Gas exchange in an animal with lungs involves breathing, transport of gases, and exchange of gases with tissue cells, 454
22.2. Animals exchange O₂ and CO₂ across moist body surfaces, 454
22.3. Gills are adapted for gas exchange in aquatic environments, 456
22.4. The tracheal system of insects provides direct exchange between the air and body cells, 457
22.5. Evolution Connection: The evolution of lungs facilitated the movement of tetrapods onto land, 458
22.6. In the human respiratory system, branching tubes convey air to lungs located in the chest cavity, 458
22.7. Connection: Smoking is a serious assault on the respiratory system, 460
22.8. Negative pressure breathing ventilates our lungs, 460
22.9. Breathing is automatically controlled, 461
Transport of Gases in the Human Body, 462
22.10. Blood transports respiratory gases, 462
22.11. Hemoglobin carries O₂, helps transport CO₂, and buffers the blood, 462
22.12. Connection: The human fetus exchanges gases with the mother’s bloodstream, 463
Chapter Review, 464
23. Circulation, 466
Essay: How Does Gravity Affect Blood Circulation?, 467
Mechanisms of Internal Transport, 468
23.1. Circulatory systems facilitate exchange with all body tissues, 468
23.2. Evolution Connection: Vertebrate cardiovascular systems reflect evolution, 469
The Human Cardiovascular System, 470
23.3. The human cardiovascular system illustrates the double circulation of mammals, 470
23.4. The heart contracts and relaxes rhythmically, 471
23.5. The pacemaker sets the tempo of the heartbeat, 472
23.6. Connection: What is a heart attack?, 473
23.7. The structure of blood vessels fits their functions, 474
23.8. Blood pressure and velocity reflect the structure and arrangement of blood vessels, 475
23.9. Connection: Measuring blood pressure can reveal cardiovascular problems, 476
23.10. Smooth muscle controls the distribution of blood, 477
23.11. Capillaries allow the transfer of substances through their walls, 478
Structure and Function of Blood, 479
23.12. Blood consists of red and white blood cells suspended in plasma, 479
23.13. Connection: Too few or too many red blood cells can be unhealthy, 480
23.14. Blood clots plug leaks when blood vessels are injured, 480
23.15. Connection: Stem cells offer a potential cure for blood cell diseases, 481
Chapter Review, 482
24. The Immune System, 484
Essay: The Kissing Disease?!?, 485
Innate Defenses Against Infection, 486
24.1. Both invertebrates and vertebrates have innate defenses against infection, 486
24.2. The inflammatory response mobilizes innate defenses, 487
24.3. The lymphatic system becomes a crucial battleground during infection, 488
Acquired Immunity, 489
24.4. The acquired immune response counters specific invaders, 489
24.5. Lymphocytes mount a dual defense, 490
24.6. Antigens have specific regions where antibodies bind to them, 491
24.7. Clonal selection musters defensive forces against specific antigens, 492
24.8. Antibodies are the weapons of the humoral immune response, 494
24.9. Antibodies mark antigens for elimination, 495
24.10. Connection: Monoclonal antibodies are powerful tools in the lab and clinic, 496
24.11. Helper T cells stimulate the humoral and cell-mediated immune responses, 497
24.12. Cytotoxic T cells destroy infected body cells, 498
24.13. Connection: HIV destroys helper T cells, compromising the body’s defenses, 498
24.14. Evolution Connection: The rapid evolution of HIV complicates AIDS treatment, 499
24.15. The immune system depends on our molecular fingerprints, 500
Disorders of the Immune System, 500
24.16. Connection: Malfunction or failure of the immune system causes disease, 500
24.17. Connection: Allergies are overreactions to certain environmental antigens, 501
Chapter Review, 502
25. Control of Body Temperature and Water Balance, 504
Essay: Chilling Out, 505
Thermoregulation, 506
25.1. An animal’s regulation of body temperature helps maintain homeostasis, 506
25.2. Heat is gained or lost in four ways, 506
25.3. Thermoregulation involves adaptations that balance heat gain and loss, 506
Osmoregulation and Excretion, 508
25.4. Animals balance the gain and loss of water and solutes through osmoregulation, 508
25.5. Evolution Connection: A variety of ways to dispose of nitrogenous wastes have evolved in animals, 509
25.6. The urinary system plays several major roles in homeostasis, 510
25.7. Overview: The key processes of the urinary system are filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and excretion, 511
25.8. Blood filtrate is refined to urine through reabsorption and secretion, 512
25.9. Connection: Kidney dialysis can be a lifesaver, 513
Chapter Review, 514
26. Hormones and the Endocrine System, 516
Essay: Gender Benders, 517
The Nature of Chemical Regulation, 518
26.1. Chemical signals coordinate body functions, 518
26.2. Hormones affect target cells by two main signaling mechanisms, 519
The Vertebrate Endocrine System, 520
26.3. Overview: The vertebrate endocrine system consists of more than a dozen major glands, 520
26.4. The hypothalamus, which is closely tied to the pituitary, connects the nervous and endocrine systems, 522
Hormones and Homeostasis, 524
26.5. The thyroid regulates development and metabolism, 524
26.6. Hormones from the thyroid and parathyroids maintain calcium homeostasis, 524
26.7. Pancreatic hormones regulate blood glucose levels, 526
26.8. Connection: Diabetes is a common endocrine disorder, 527
26.9. The adrenal glands mobilize responses to stress, 528
26.10. The gonads secrete sex hormones, 529
26.11. Evolution Connection: A single hormone can perform a variety of functions in different animals, 530
Chapter Review, 530
27. Reproduction and Embryonic Development, 532
Essay: Baby Bonanza, 532
Asexual and Sexual Reproduction, 534
27.1. Asexual reproduction results in the generation of genetically identical offspring, 534
27.2. Sexual reproduction results in the generation of genetically unique offspring, 534
Human Reproduction, 536
27.3. Reproductive anatomy of the human female, 536
27.4. Reproductive anatomy of the human male, 538
27.5. The formation of sperm and egg requires meiosis, 540
27.6. Hormones synchronize cyclic changes in the ovary and uterus, 542
27.7. Connection: Sexual activity can transmit disease, 544
27.8. Connection: Contraception can prevent unwanted pregnancy, 545
Principles of Embryonic Development, 546
27.9. Fertilization results in a zygote and triggers embryonic development, 546
27.10. Cleavage produces a ball of cells from the zygote, 548
27.11. Gastrulation produces a three-layered embryo, 548
27.12. Organs start to form after gastrulation, 550
27.13. Multiple processes give form to the developing animal, 552
27.14. Evolution Connection: Pattern formation during embryonic development is controlled by ancient genes, 552
Human Development, 554
27.15. The embryo and placenta take shape during the first month of pregnancy, 554
27.16. Human development from conception to birth is divided into three trimesters, 556
27.17. Childbirth is hormonally induced and occurs in three stages, 558
27.18. Connection: Reproductive technology increases our reproductive options, 559
Chapter Review, 560
28. Nervous Systems, 562
Essay: Can an Injured Spinal Cord Be Fixed?, 563
Nervous System Structure and Function, 564
28.1. Nervous systems receive sensory input, interpret it, and send out appropriate commands, 564
28.2. Neurons are the functional units of nervous systems, 565
Nerve Signals and Their Transmission, 566
28.3. A neuron maintains a membrane potential across its membrane, 566
28.4. A nerve signal begins as a change in the membrane potential, 566
28.5. The action potential propagates itself along the neuron, 568
28.6. Neurons communicate at synapses, 569
28.7. Chemical synapses make complex information processing possible, 570
28.8. A variety of small molecules function as neurotransmitters, 570
28.9. Connection: Many drugs act at chemical synapses, 571
An Overview of Animal Nervous Systems, 572
28.10. Evolution Connection: The evolution of animal nervous systems reflects changes in body symmetry, 572
28.11. Vertebrate nervous systems are highly centralized and cephalized, 573
28.12. The peripheral nervous system of vertebrates is a functional hierarchy, 574
28.13. Opposing actions of sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons regulate the internal environment, 574
28.14. The vertebrate brain develops from three anterior bulges of the neural tube, 576
The Human Brain, 576
28.15. The structure of a living supercomputer: The human brain, 576
28.16. The cerebral cortex is a mosaic of specialized, interactive regions, 578
28.17. Connection: Injuries and brain operations provide insight into brain function, 579
28.18. Connection: fMRI scans can provide insight into brain structure and function, 580
28.19. Several parts of the brain regulate sleep and arousal, 580
28.20. The limbic system is involved in emotions, memory, and learning, 581
28.21. Connection: Changes in brain physiology can produce neurological disorders, 582
Chapter Review, 584
29. The Senses, 586
Essay: Superhuman Senses, 587
Sensory Reception, 588
29.1. Sensory inputs become sensations and perceptions in the brain, 588
29.2. Sensory receptors convert stimulus energy to action potentials, 588
29.3. Specialized sensory receptors detect five categories of stimuli, 590
Hearing and Balance, 592
29.4. The ear converts air pressure waves to action potentials that are perceived as sound, 592
29.5. The inner ear houses our organs of balance, 594
29.6. Connection: What causes motion sickness?, 594
Vision, 595
29.7. Evolution Connection: Several types of eyes have evolved among animals, 595
29.8. Humans have single-lens eyes that focus by changing position or shape, 596
29.9. Connection: Artificial lenses or surgery can correct focusing problems, 597
29.10. The human retina contains two types of photoreceptors: rods and cones, 598
Taste and Smell, 599
29.11. Taste and odor receptors detect chemicals present in solution or air, 599
29.12. Connection: “Supertasters” have a heightened sense of taste, 599
29.13. Review: The central nervous system couples stimulus with response, 600
Chapter Review, 600
30. How Animals Move, 602
Essay: Man versus Horse, 602
Movement and Locomotion, 604
30.1. Animals have evolved diverse means of locomotion, 604
Skeletal Support, 606
30.2. Skeletons function in support, movement, and protection, 606
30.3. Evolution Connection: Vertebrate skeletons are variations on an ancient theme, 608
30.4. Bones are complex living organs, 609
30.5. Connection: Healthy bones resist stress and heal from injuries, 610
30.6. Joints permit different types of movement, 611
Muscle Contraction and Movement, 611
30.7. The skeleton and muscles interact in movement, 611
30.8. Each muscle cell has its own contractile apparatus, 612
30.9. A muscle contracts when thin filaments slide across thick filaments, 612
30.10. Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction, 614
30.11. Connection: Aerobic respiration supplies most of the energy for exercise, 615
30.12. Connection: Muscle fiber characteristics affect athletic performance, 616
Chapter Review, 617
Unit Six. Plants: Form and Function, 619
31. Plant Structure, Reproduction, and Development, 620
Essay: Extreme Tree Climbing, 621
Plant Structure and Function, 622
31.1. Connection: People have manipulated plant genetics since prehistoric times, 622
31.2. The two major groups of angiosperms are the monocots and the eudicots, 623
31.3. A typical plant body contains three basic organs: roots, stems, and leaves, 624
31.4. Many plants have modified roots, stems, and leaves, 625
31.5. Three tissue systems make up the plant body, 626
31.6. Plant cells and tissues are diverse in structure and function, 628
Plant Growth, 630
31.7. Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots, 630
31.8. Secondary growth increases the girth of woody plants, 632
Reproduction of Flowering Plants, 634
31.9. The flower is the organ of sexual reproduction in angiosperms, 634
31.10. The development of pollen and ovules culminates in fertilization, 634
31.11. The ovule develops into a seed, 636
31.12. The ovary develops into a fruit, 637
31.13. Seed germination continues the life cycle, 638
31.14. Asexual reproduction produces plant clones, 638
31.15. Evolution Connection: Evolutionary adaptations allow some trees to live very long lives, 640
Chapter Review, 640
32. Plant Nutrition and Transport, 642
Essay: Planting Hope in the Wake of Katrina, 643
The Uptake and Transport of Plant Nutrients, 644
32.1. Plants acquire their nutrients from soil and air, 644
32.2. The plasma membranes of root cells control solute uptake, 645
32.3. Transpiration pulls water up xylem vessels, 646
32.4. Guard cells control transpiration, 647
32.5. Phloem transports sugars, 648
Plant Nutrients and the Soil, 650
32.6. Plant health depends on a complete diet of essential inorganic nutrients, 650
32.7. Connection: Fertilizers can help prevent nutrient deficiencies, 651
32.8. Fertile soil supports plant growth, 652
32.9. Connection: Soil conservation is essential to human life, 653
32.10. Connection: Organic farmers follow principles of sustainable agriculture, 654
32.11. Connection: Agricultural research is improving the yields and nutritional values of crops, 654
Plant Nutrition and Symbiosis, 655
32.12. Most plants depend on bacteria to supply nitrogen, 655
32.13. Evolution Connection: Mutually beneficial relationships have evolved between plants and their symbionts, 656
32.14. The plant kingdom includes epiphytes, parasites, and carnivores, 657
Chapter Review, 658
33. Control Systems in Plants, 660
Essay: What Are the Health Benefits of Soy?, 661
Plant Hormones, 662
33.1. Experiments on how plants turn toward light led to the discovery of a plant hormone, 662
33.2. Five major types of hormones regulate plant growth and development, 664
33.3. Auxin stimulates the elongation of cells in young shoots, 664
33.4. Cytokinins stimulate cell division, 666
33.5. Gibberellins affect stem elongation and have numerous other effects, 666
33.6. Abscisic acid inhibits many plant processes, 667
33.7. Ethylene triggers fruit ripening and other aging processes, 668
33.8. Connection: Plant hormones have many agricultural uses, 669
Growth Responses and Biological Rhythms in Plants, 670
33.9. Tropisms orient plant growth toward or away from environmental stimuli, 670
33.10. Plants have internal clocks, 671
33.11. Plants mark the seasons by measuring photoperiod, 672
33.12. Phytochrome is a light detector that may help set the biological clock, 673
33.13. Talking About Science: Joanne Chory studies the effects of light and hormones in the model plant Arabidopsis, 674
Plant Defenses, 674
33.14. Evolution Connection: Defenses against herbivores and infectious microbes have evolved in plants, 674
33.15. Talking About Science: Plant biochemist Eloy Rodriguez studies how animals use defensive chemicals made by plants, 676
Chapter Review, 676
Unit Seven. Ecology, 679
34. The Biosphere: An Introduction to Earth’s Diverse Environments, 680
Essay: Life from Top to Bottom, 680
The Biosphere, 682
34.1. Ecologists study how organisms interact with their environment at several levels, 682
34.2. Connection: The science of ecology provides insight into environmental problems, 683
34.3. Physical and chemical factors influence life in the biosphere, 684
34.4. Evolution Connection: Organisms are adapted to abiotic and biotic factors by natural selection, 685
34.5. Regional climate influences the distribution of terrestrial communities, 686
Aquatic Biomes, 688
34.6. Sunlight and substrate are key factors in the distribution of marine organisms, 688
34.7. Current, sunlight, and nutrients are important abiotic factors in freshwater biomes, 690
Terrestrial Biomes, 691
34.8. Terrestrial biomes reflect regional variations in climate, 691
34.9. Tropical forests cluster near the equator, 692
34.10. Savannas are grasslands with scattered trees, 692
34.11. Deserts are defined by their dryness, 693
34.12. Spiny shrubs dominate the chaparral, 694
34.13. Temperate grasslands include the North American prairie, 694
34.14. Broadleaf trees dominate temperate forests, 695
34.15. Coniferous forests are often dominated by a few species of trees, 696
34.16. Long, bitter-cold winters characterize the tundra, 696
34.17. The global water cycle connects aquatic and terrestrial biomes, 697
Chapter Review, 698
35. Behavioral Adaptations to the Environment, 700
Essay: Of Mice and Monogamy, 701
The Scientific Study of Behavior, 702
35.1. Behavioral ecologists ask both proximate and ultimate questions, 702
35.2. Fixed action patterns are innate behaviors, 702
35.3. Behavior is the result of both genetic and environmental factors, 704
Learning, 705
35.4. Learning establishes specific links between experience and behavior, 705
35.5. Imprinting requires both innate behavior and experience, 706
35.6. Connection: Imprinting poses problems and opportunities for conservation programs, 707
35.7. Animal movement may be a simple response to stimuli or require spatial learning, 708
35.8. Movements of animals may depend on internal maps, 709
35.9. Animals may learn to associate a stimulus or behavior with a response, 710
35.10. Social learning employs observation and imitation of others, 710
35.11. Problem-solving behavior relies on cognition, 711
Survival and Reproductive Success, 712
35.12. Behavioral ecologists use cost-benefit analysis in studying foraging, 712
35.13. Communication is an essential element of interactions between animals, 713
35.14. Mating behavior often includes elaborate courtship rituals, 714
35.15. Mating behaviors and parental care enhance reproductive success, 715
35.16. Connection: Chemical pollutants can cause abnormal behavior, 716
Social Behavior and Sociobiology, 717
35.17. Sociology places social behavior in an evolutionary context, 717
35.18. Territorial behavior parcels out space and resources, 717
35.19. Agonistic behavior often resolves confrontations between competitors, 718
35.20. Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior, 718
35.21. Talking About Science: Behavioral biologist Jane Goodall discusses dominance hierarchies and reconciliation behavior in chimpanzees, 719
35.22. Evolution Connection: Altruistic acts can often be explained by the concept of inclusive fitness, 720
35.23. Human behavior is the result of both genetic and environmental factors, 721
Chapter Review, 722
36. Population Ecology, 724
Essay: A Tale of Two Fishes, 724
Population Structure and Dynamics, 726
36.1. Population ecology is the study of how and why populations change, 726
36.2. Density and dispersion patterns are important population variables, 726
36.3. Life tables track survivorship in populations, 727
36.4. Idealized models predict patterns of population growth, 728
36.5. Multiple factors may limit population growth, 730
36.6. Some populations have “boom-and-bust” cycles, 731
36.7. Evolution Connection: Evolution shapes life histories, 732
36.8. Connection: Principles of population ecology have practical applications, 733
The Human Population, 734
36.9. The human population continues to increase, but the growth rate is slowing, 734
36.10. Connection: Age structures reveal social and economic trends, 736
36.11. Connection: An ecological footprint is a measure of resource consumption, 736
Chapter Review, 738
37. Communities and Ecosystems, 740
Essay: Hungry Hippos, 741
Community Structure and Dynamics, 742
37.1. A community includes all the organisms inhabiting a particular area, 742
37.2. Interspecific interactions are fundamental to community structure, 742
37.3. Competition may occur when a shared resource is limited, 743
37.4. Mutualism benefits both partners, 743
37.5. Evolution Connection: Predation leads to diverse adaptations in prey species, 744
37.6. Evolution Connection: Herbivory leads to diverse adaptations in plants, 744
37.7. Parasites and pathogens can affect community composition, 745
37.8. Trophic structure is a key factor in community dynamics, 746
37.9. Food chains interconnect, forming food webs, 747
37.10. Species diversity includes relative abundance and species richness, 748
37.11. Keystone species have a disproportionate impact on diversity, 749
37.12. Disturbance is a prominent feature of most communities, 750
37.13. Connection: Invasive species can devastate communities, 751
Ecosystem Structure and Dynamics, 752
37.14. Ecosystem ecology emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling, 752
37.15. Primary production sets the energy budget for ecosystems, 752
37.16. Energy supply limits the length of food chains, 753
37.17. Connection: A production pyramid explains why meat is a luxury for humans, 754
37.18. Chemicals are cycled between organic matter and abiotic reservoirs, 754
37.19. The carbon cycle depends on photosynthesis and respiration, 755
37.20. The phosphorus cycle depends on the weathering of rock, 756
37.21. The nitrogen cycle depends on bacteria, 756
37.22. Connection: Ecosystem alteration can upset chemical cycling, 758
37.23. Talking About Science: David Schindler talks about the effects of nutrients on freshwater ecosystems, 759
Chapter Review, 760
38. Conservation Biology, 762
Essay: Saving the Tiger, 763
The Biodiversity Crisis, 764
38.1. Biodiversity is a vital resource that is being lost, 764
38.2. Biodiversity includes genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity, 765
38.3. Habitat destruction, invasive species, and overexploitation are major threats to biodiversity, 766
38.4. Connection: Pollution of the environment compounds our impact on other species, 767
38.5. Connection: Rapid warming is changing the global climate, 768
38.6. Connection: Human activities are responsible for rising concentrations of greenhouse gases, 769
38.7. Global climate change affects biomes, ecosystems, communities, and populations, 770
38.8. Evolution Connection: Global climate change is an agent of natural selection, 771
Conservation Biology and Restoration Ecology, 772
38.9. Protecting endangered populations is one goal of conservation biology, 772
38.10. Sustaining ecosystems and landscapes is a conservation priority, 773
38.11. Protected areas are established to slow the loss of biodiversity, 774
38.12. Zoned reserves are an attempt to reverse ecosystem disruption, 775
38.13. Connection: The Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative seeks to preserve biodiversity by connecting protected areas, 776
38.14. Connection: The study of how to restore degraded habitats is a developing science, 778
38.15. Sustainable development is an ultimate goal, 779
Chapter Review, 780
Appendix 1. Metric Conversion Table, A-1
Appendix 2. The Periodic Table, A-2
Appendix 3. The Amino Acids of Proteins, A-3
Appendix 4. Chapter Review Answers, A-4
Appendix 5. Student Media Activities, A-28
Appendix 6. Credits, A-39
Glossary, G-1
Index, I-1

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